Netherlands today
Sovereign: Queen Beatrix (1980)
Premier: Wim Kok (1994)
Area: 16,000 sq mi (41,500 sq km)
Population: 15,600,000
GDP*) per capita: $ 25,830
Capital: Amsterdam
Monetary unit: Guilder
Language: Dutch
*) GDP: Gross Domestic Product
Religions: R.Cath. 36%, Prot. 27%, unaffil. 33%
Literacy rate: 99%
GDP: $ 403 billion (Agriculture 3%, Industry 27%, Services 70%)
Exports: $ 184 billion
Imports: $ 171 billion
Major trading partners: Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, U.K., U.S.
On March 4, the Militair Gezag (Military Authority) was dissolved. Since liberation it had been formally the highest authority in the land. The political purge was slow and had economic repercussions. Therefore, justice minister Johannes van Maarseveen (1894-1951) ordered the speedy release of thousands of petty collaborators. On January 9, the Labor Party (Partij van de Arbeid, PvdA) was founded, a broad coalition of socialists, Christian Democrats and progressive Liberals. However, at the June general elections, the PvdA won only 29 out of 100 parliament seats. The Communists (CPN) won 10 seats, the liberal Freedom Party only 6. More than half of the voters supported a confessional party: the Roman Catholic KVP became the biggest party (32 seats), followed by the protestant ARP with 13, the liberal-Christian CHU with 8, and the orthodox calvinist SGP with 2 seats. KVP and PvdA formed a "Catholic-Red" government led by Louis Beel (1902-1977). It was the first time the Dutch socialists were in government.~~~ The main issue facing the new administration was the "decolonization" of the Netherlands Indies (Indonesia). According to the Linggadjati Agreement (November 15), the Dutch government was to recognize the administration of the Republic of Indonesia on Java and Sumatra and allow it to leave the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Instead, Indonesia became a member of the Union, a kind of commonwealth, together with the Netherlands and the West Indies (Surinam, Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, St. Martin, Saba en St. Eustatius).
The administration decided to keep control over the Netherlands Indies at all cost. Dutch forces on Java and other key islands were beefed up to over 160,000 men. These troops were deployed in a "Police Action" (Politionele Actie) beginning on July 21. Most of Java and Sumatra were brought back under Dutch control.~~~ Minister Willem Drees (1886-1988), leader of the socialist PvdA, saw parliament approve his emergency law, giving old age pensions to all Dutchmen, irrespective of their prior careers.~~~ G.K. van het Reve (*1923) published his autobiographical novel De Avonden (Evenings).
On September 6, Crown Princess Juliana (*1909) was enthroned as Queen. She succeeded her mother Wilhelmina (1880-1962), who had voluntarily stepped down. Together with Belgium and Luxembourg-with whom the Netherlands closely cooperated in the Benelux (created in 1944)-the Netherlands joined the OECD and the Western European Union, a defense alliance with France and Britain. Dutch and Indonesian negotiators, together with representatives from the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam participated in a round able conference to discuss the independence of Indonesia and future mutual relations.~~~ Meanwhile, more than 200,000 Dutch soldiers in the Indonesian archipelago were deployed in the second "Police Action".~~~ In June the Popular Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) was founded: a merger between the liberal Freedom Party and progressive liberals leaving the socialist PvdA. The PvdA won the general elections. Drees became prime minister.~~~ Together with Danish and Belgian painters, Karel Appel (*1921) and Constant (*1920) founded the Cobra Group, initiating an important innovation in art.~~~ At the London Olympics, Fanny Blankers-Koen (*1918) won 4 gold medals in athletics.~~~ Reverend W.A. Visser ´t Hooft (1900-1985) was elected president of World Council of Churches at its first conference in Amsterdam.
The Netherlands and its Benelux allies joined NATO, the U.S.-led organization created to withstand a possible armed attack by the Soviet Union and its client states. Thus the Netherlands definitively abandoned its traditional policy of neutrality. The loss of the Netherlands Indies made the step easier. On December 27, sovereignty was transferred to the government of Indonesia.~~~ Concern over the subversion of state and society by a Communist "fifth column" prompted the government to create the internal security service (BVD). As long as the cold war lasted (until the desintegration of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s) these fears remained.~~~ The Guilder was devalued (from 2.65 to 3.80 per U.S. dollar) in order to promote exports.~~~ Total registration of passenger cars amounted to 100,000.
In August, the government dispatched a batallion of volunteers to Korea. Together with U.S., British, French, Belgian, Australian and Colombian units, all under UN command, these men fought for the preservation of democracy in South Korea. Lieutenant Colonel Marinus den Ouden (1909-1951) commanded the Dutch batallion.~~~ The special legislation regulating public business organizations (PBO's) came in force. Under this new law, all producers in certain sectors (especially in agriculture) had to join such organizations. Many farmers regarded this measure as authoritarian and corporatist. The newly created social economic council (SER) became the central body mediating between business and government. During the so-called third wage round, wages and salaries were increased by 5%. The census revealed that the Dutch population totaled 9.7 million people.
Together with France, West-Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg, the Netherlands founded the European Coal and Steel Community, creating a common European market for coal and steel.~~~ In January the cabinet fell over the New Guinea policy of the liberal foreign minister, Dirk Stikker (1897-1979). The VVD did not take part in the cabinet. Its place was taken by the calvinist ARP. Drees once again became prime minister. The first Moluccan refugees (c. 12,000 arrived). The men had been serving in the colonial army in the Indies (KNIL) and now feared reprisals from the Indonesian government.~~~ In March, regular television broadcasting was begun through the Lopik station in Utrecht province.~~~ Willem Frederik Hermans (1921-1995) published Ik heb altijd gelijk (I am always right) and was taken to court (and acquitted) for insulting Roman Catholics.~~~ Bicycle racer Wim van Est from Brabant province became the first Dutchman to ever win the yellow jersey in the Tour de France. However, after he fell 70 meters in a precipice, he withdrew from the race.
At the June general elecctions, the PvdA became the nation's biggest party, thanks in part to the popularity of Willem Drees.~~~ With the opening of Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal (the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal), Amsterdam realized an old dream of getting a direct connection with the German Ruhr area. Former NSB leader Mussert had been among the project's most ardent supporters.~~~ First broadcasts of the highly popular comical radio series De familie Doorsnee, (the Average family), written by Annie M.G. Schmidt (1911-1995).~~~ Coffee rationing was ended.
On February 1, Zealand, the West of Brabant and the islands of the province of South Holland were flooded as a result of a rare combination of a high water mark and a Southwesterly storm. Hundreds of square kilometers were flooded, some 1800 people and tens of thousands of cattle drowned. This disaster was one of the key national events since the end of World War II. The nation was bonded together more strongly through sympathy and solidarity with the victims.~~~ Annie M.G. Schmidt published the first volume of Jip en Janneke, a series about a couple of naughty toddlers. It became a classic of Dutch youth literature.~~~ Professor Frits Zernike, of the University of Groningen (1888-1966), was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his invention of the phase contrast microscope.
The Statute for the Kingdom of the Netherlands came in force. It provided for autonomy for the remaining Dutch colonies in the West Indies: Surinam and the Antilles. Only defense and foreign affairs resorted under the "government of the Kingdom". Dutch air defense was reinforced by a U.S. fighter squadron staioned at Soesterberg air base.~~~ The Dutch Roman Catholic bishops published a charge De Katholieken in het openbare leven van deze tijd, (Roman Catholics in contemporary public life), warning against membership of the socialist PvdA. At a time when the country was governed by coalition cabinets of Roman Catholics and Socialists, this polarizing statement caused astonishment.~~~ The new official spelling by De Vries en Te Winkel for the first time standardized writing in the entire Dutch language area, including Belgium.~~~ On December 31 Wim Kan (1911-1983) gave his first new year's eve show, which was broadcast live on nationwide radio.
Parliament rejected cabinet proposals for lowering income. The cabinet resigned but then reneged on its decision within a month, after which its proposals were accepted. Rents were increased by 10%.~~~ The F-27 Friendship, a two-engine passenger and transport aircraft made by Fokker, made its maiden flight. Eventually, some 1000 were built, making it one of the world's most successful civilian aircraft.~~~ Johnny Jordaan (1924-1989), an Amsterdam singer of traditional popular repertoire, became the nation's most successful recording artist with singles called De Parel van de Jordaan (The pearl of the Jordaan quarter) and Bij ons in de Jordaan. (Here in our Jordaan quarter).~~~ During the pentecostal weekend the first highway traffic jam was recorded at the Oudenrijn roundabout near Utrecht.
Nationwide uproar resulted from the news that Queen Juliana had made faith healer Greet Hofmans (1894-1968) her confidante. With the help of Mrs. Hofmans, the Queen hoped to improve the eyesight of little princess Christina (then still known as Marijke), who was almost blind. Because of fears that Mrs. Hofmans would gain influence on government through her friendship with Queen Juliana, she was told to leave Soestdijk Palace, where she had an apartment. A constitutional amendment increased the number of parliament seats from 100 to 150.~~~ On Dam square in the center of Amsterdam the national monument commemorating the victims of World War II was unveiled. It was the work of sculptor John Raedecker (1885-1956).~~~ An Institute of Technology was opened in Eindhoven, the second in the country after Delft.~~~ The Royal Netherlands Army changed its appearance by abolishing British-style uniforms and flat steel helmets and replacing them with US helmets and uniforms.~~~ The Netherlands was the only nation boycotting the Melbourne Olympics as a protest against the Soviet invasion of Hungary.
In February the cabinet decided to put drastic curbs on government spending since outlays had risen more rapidly than the GNP.~~~ A law declaring married women to be capable of autonomous action came in force. General old age legislation (AOW), designed by social minister Jacobus Suurhoff (1905-1967) became effective. Under this law, all salaried employees had to contribute to a national retirement fund.~~~ In January the Pacifist Socialist Party (PSP) was founded, a leftist party advocating a humane and peaceful society under the motto of "socialism without a nuclear bomb".
The Rome Treaty, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) became effective. The signers of the agreement (the Benelux countries, France, Germany and Italy) committed themselves to realizing a common market. The Coal and Steel Community became a part of the new community.~~~ The third Drees cabinet fell over a tax issue.~~~ The Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN) was split as a result of progressive "destalinization" in the Soviet Union and its vassal states.~~~ W.F. Hermans published De donkere kamer van Damokles, (Damocles' dark room), regarded by many as his masterpiece.
Early general elections brought a new party to parliament: the Boerenpartij (Farmers' Party), led by "Boer" (Farmer) Hendrik Koekoek (1912-1987). This single issue party mainly objected to PBO's and the Landbouwschap (Agricultural Agency), which seriously curtailed the freedom of producers. In May a Christian-Liberal cabinet was formed under Roman Catholic leader Jan de Quay (1901-1985). The four parties participating were KVP, ARP, CHU and VVD. The new administration loosened wage and price controls and in general cut back government intervention in the economy.~~~ The general legislation for widows and orphans (AWW) became effective. All employees had to contribute to this new fund.~~~ A large natural gas deposit was discovered at Slochteren in Groningen province.~~~ The Royal Netherlands Air Force selected the US-made Lockheed F-104 Starfighter over the French Mirage III to replace its obsolescent British-made Hawker Hunter fighters. The choice was politically motivated.~~~ The Nederlands Dans Theater (Netherlands Dance Theater) separated from the National Ballet. Its first director was Hans van Manen (*1932), a leading modern choreographer with an international reputation.
Some small chunks of land (Elten and Tudderen) that had been annexed in 1949, were returned to the Federal Republic of Germany. By the same treaty that regulated this, West-Germany agreed to pay 280 million deutschemark, partly as compensation toward Dutch war victims.~~~ In December, the De Quay cabinet fell over building construction policy, but it could continue in power for a short while after the cracks in the coalition had been mended.~~~ Since 1950, GNP growth stood at an annual average of 4.9%, one of the highest rates in Europe.~~~ In May, the VRON organization (generally known as Radio Veronica) began its commercial radio broadcasts from a ship moored off the Scheveningen coast. Programming consisted largely of US and British light music (rock and pop).
Following the deutschemark, the guilder was devalued in March. This was indicative of the extent to which the Dutch economy had become intertwined with the West German economy.~~~ Despite the shortage on the labor market, civil servants were given a five-day week (free Saturdays). "Guest workers" from Spain and Italy were contracted to help meet labor shortages.~~~ In the spring, the foundation for an eventual merger of all Dutch protestant churches was laid with the creation of the "Samen-op-weg-beweging" (traveling together movement).
The transfer of the former Dutch colony of New Guinea to Indonesia (demanded by the UN and the U.S.) caused an uproar among the Dutch public. Pending a referendum by the local people on their political future, Indonesia would administer the area.~~~ The millionth dwelling built since 1945 was inaugurated in the eastern town of Zwolle.
Both PSP and the Farmers' Party won at the general elections. After four fruitless attempts to build a cabinet, finally KVP's Victor Marijnen (1917-1975) formed a government without the PvdA. The new administration first changed the constitution, enfranchising all citizens over 21. Parliament approved educational reforms proposed by secretary Jo Cals (1914-1971). With this "Mammoetwet" (mammoth act) secondary education was drastically reformed.~~~ Students at the Catholic University of Nijmegen founded the SVB (Student Union). This can be regarded as the first manifestation of the 1960s student protests that shook higher education.~~~ Many firms had to begin to pay higher wages, thus pushing up production costs in the Netherlands.~~~ Bert Haanstra (1916-1997) enjoyed a major success with Alleman, (Everyman), a documentary on the daily life of the Dutch.
The wedding of Princess Irene (*1939) to Spanish pretender Carlos Hugo de Bourbon-Parma (*1930) caused controversy. The Roman Catholic bridegroom was leader of the Carlist movement, a conservatively monarchist organization enjoying broad support in Navarre and the Basque Country. Princess Irene forfeited her rights to the throne for not requesting parliamentary approval for the wedding.~~~ The REM organization began independent, commercial TV broadcasts from an old drilling platform off the Scheveningen coast. However, parliament rushed through legislation (anti-REM law) safeguarding the state monopoly on TV broadcasting, and closed the independent station.~~~ The Nederlandse Handelmaatschappij and Twentsche Bank merged to form the Algemene Bank Nederland (ABN). Passenger car registration totalled some 1 million.~~~ In Enschede a third Institute of Technology was opened.~~~ Anton Geesink (*1934) won a gold medal for Judo at the Tokyo Olympics.~~~ A Rolling Stones performance in Scheveningen's Kurhaus theater was ended after fifteen minutes when the audience began to demolish the furniture.
The Marijnen cabinet fell over broadcasting policy. The issue was which criteria to set for the admission of broadcasting associations to the public system. Immediately after the closing of their station, the REM organizers had founded a new public association, TROS, with which they intended to continue their programs: mainly foreign-made series and sitcoms, light amusement and gaudy shows. KVP leader Cals formed a new cabinet with the participation of the PvdA. For the first time, the cabinet included a minister for development aid.~~~ A new social assistance act replaced the old poor law.~~~ The National Ballet, led by Sonia Gaskell (1904-1974) premiered Monument voor een gestorven jongen (Monument for a dead boy), by Rudi van Dantzig (*1933), who together with Van Manen founded the modern Dutch ballet tradition.
On March 10, the wedding of Crown Princess Beatrix (*1938) to German diplomat Claus von Amsberg (Prins Claus, *1926) took place in Amsterdam. During a ride through the city protesters threw smoke bombs. Members of the anarchist Provo movement who wanted to overthrow public order through provocations, played a key role in the demonstrations. On June 14 and 15 a demonstration by construction workers demanding immediate payment of their vacation bonuses, turned into open mutiny. The men attacked the headquarters of the Telegraaf newspaper.~~~ During "Schmelzer night", the Cals cabinet was brought down. Norbert Schmelzer (*1921), KVP parliament leader, refused to approve the budget proposals, calling them spendthrift. An interim government under Jelle Zijlstra (*1918, ARP) took over. Hans van Mierlo (*1931) and Hans Gruyters (*1931) founded a new party, Democraten 66 (D'66), in an effort to renew the political system. The new party especially looked at U.S. examples, such as the two-party system, voting districts and elected officials at all levels. A radical wing, "Nieuw Links" (New Left) formed inside PvdA. These radicals wanted to abolish the monarchy, drastic income leveling and tuition free universities.
The ARP won at the general elections. The new D'66 party won 7 seats, thanks above all to their leader Van Mierlo's popularity with female and youthful voters. Both KVP and PvdA lost. KVP's Piet de Jong (*1915) formed a cabinet.~~~ The labor disability act (WAO) became effective, guaranteeing payments to those who were unable to take a regular job.~~~ The publication of De SS'ers, (the SS men) by Armando (*1929) and Hans Sleutelaar (*1935), a series of interviews with Dutch SS volunteers, caused a storm of indignation. The memory of large scale and ideologically motivated nazi collaboration was unwelcome and unpleasant.~~~ Annie M.G. Schmidt's children's TV series Ja zuster, nee zuster, (Yes Nurse, No Ma'am), with music by Harry Bannink (1929-1999), and broadcast by VARA quickly gained a tremendous popularity.~~~ The first Dutch clover leaf junction at Oudenrijn was opened for traffic.
The so-called Mammoetwet (Mammoth act) became effective. Secondary education was radically overhauled. Old school types (Gymnasium, or Grammar School, HBS, MMS and MULO) were replaced by VWO, HAVO and MAVO. The new system was designed in such a way as to enable students to switch among school types without loss of time. In practice, nothing much came of it. Instead, the reforms produced a lowering of educational quality across the board. Especially classical language programs (Latin and Greek) and French and German programs were affected.~~~ A number of leftist KVP members seceded to form the PPR, the Political Party of Radicals.~~~ The Rutgersstichting (Rutgers foundation) for advice and information on sexuality was founded as a branch of NVSH, the Netherlands Association for Sexual Reform.~~~ The Dodewaard nuclear plant went active. It was closed in 1997.~~~ Jan Janssen (*1940) became the first Dutchman to win the Tour de France.
Students occupied the Roman Catholic University Institute at Tilburg. Amsterdam students occupied the Maagdenhuis, the administration hall of the municipal university. With their actions, the students wanted to force the government to democratize university administration. They wanted to participate in decision making at all levels.~~~ On May 30 a strike in Curaçao harbor turned into a popular revolt during which part of Willemstad's historic inner city went up in flames. Dutch Royal Marines were flown in to restore order.~~~ On January 1, VAT was introduced, leading to price hikes between 10% and 20% for many goods and services. The VAT was introduced all over the EEC.~~~ The feminist movement Dolle Mina was founded in Amsterdam.~~~ Young actors began Aktie Tomaat (Action Tomato) to reform the stage, demanding a change in repertoire and a say in decision making.~~~ The Royal Netherlands Army received the first German Leopard tanks in replacement of ageing British Centurions.~~~ Professor Jan Tinbergen (1903-1994) of Rotterdam Economics University received a Nobel Prize for Economics.
At the general elections, the newly founded party DS'70 (Democratic Socialists 1970) won 8 seats. The party had been formed by right-wing socialists from PvdA who disagreed with its new radicalism. Willem Drees, Jr. (*1921), son of the socialist leader of the 1940s and 1950s, headed the new party. DS'70 immediately took on government responsibility in the new cabinet under ARP's Barend Biesheuvel (*1920), together with KVP, CHU and VVD.~~~ Ajax Amsterdam won the European Champions' Cup. Thus began the fame of "total soccer", whose architects coach Rinus Michels (*1928), and Johan Cruijff (*1947), the country's all time greatest player and one of the best in soccer history. The following two years, Ajax won the cup as well.~~~ NVSH, the sexual reform association that mediated in abortion requests, opened special abortion clinics in The Hague and Zwolle. Parliament abolished article 248bis from the penal code. This article punished sexual contacts with minors of the same sex. The gay association COC changed its objectives and its name. It was now called the "Netherlands association for the integration of homosexuality COC".
Prime minister Biesheuvel called early general elections after the DS'70 ministers had left the government. All citizens over 18 were now enfranchised. VVD, PvdA and PPR scored victories. The new parties (D'66 and DS'70) lost seats and so did the KVP and the CHU.~~~ Wim Kok (*1938) was elected chairman of the NVV, the nation's biggest trade union.~~~ Turks Fruit, (Turkish delight) directed by Paul Verhoeven (*1938), after the novel by Jan Wolkers (*1925), and starring Monique van de Ven (*1952) and Rutger Hauer (*1944), became the country's most successful movie ever. Wim de Bie (*1939) and Kees van Kooten (*1941) made the first of a great number of satirical TV programs for VPRO.
On May 11, after 164 days of negotiations, the Den Uyl cabinet was finally presented. It consisted of PvdA, PPR, D'66, KVP and ARP. The members of parliament of the two religious parties gave only conditional support to the new administration. Prime minister Joop Den Uyl (1919-1987) hoped to build a more egalitarian society and insisted on strict environmental protection.~~~ In October the nation was hit by the Arab oil embargo. However, the Netherlands profited from the increase in oil prices decreed by OPEC, since the price of its enormous natural gas exports was tied to the oil price. In response to an imminent petroleum shortage, the government prohibited car owners from driving on sundays. On these "sundays without cars" the nation almost seemed an idyllic place.
After a massive socialist victory at the local elections, many cities formed leftist governments.~~~ The Dutch national team ended in second place at the Soccer World Championships held in West-Germany. The final in Munich was lost 1:2 against the West German team. For many Dutchmen, this defeat was deeply traumatic, because their "Clockwork Orange" team had been the best and most brilliant of the tournament. TV viewers all over the world were full of admiration and sympathy for the Dutch team.
In July Surinam was granted independence. Both for ideological and political reasons, prime minister Den Uyl seized the opportunity to get rid of this colony. Surinam was to receive 3.5 billion guilders in development aid, the highest per capita aid ever granted. However, many Surinamese had little faith in their country's future as an independent nation. Tens of thousands left the country and settled in the Netherlands before independence would deprive them of their Dutch citizenship.~~~ The budget deficit hit 15 billion guilders, a new record. Finance minister Wim Duisenberg (*1935) wanted to reduce the deficit by cutting social benefits.~~~ In December, the Federation of trade unions FNV was created, a merger of NVV and the Roman Catholic NKV.~~~ After U.S. blackmail (by putting pressure on KLM's profitable New York flights), the defense ministry opted for the U.S. F-16 fighter as a replacement for the Lockheed Starfighter. General Dynamics promised sizeable compensatory orders to Dutch firms and gave them a share in the building program. Thus the Netherlands once again peferred a U.S. fighter over a European design.
In February tne nation was shocked by the Lockheed affair. The U.S. Lockheed firm had been paying one million guilders in bribes to a certain "Victor Baarn," a cover name of the Queen's Consort Prince Bernard (*1911). In exchange for the money, the Prince had promoted the acquisition of Lockheed air frames. The special commission that investigated the affair wanted the Prince to step down as Inspector-General of the Royal Netherlands Air Force. To add insult to injury, the Prince was prohibited from publicly wearing a uniform.~~~ In September the major Christian parties KVP, ARP en CHU approved a merger. The new party CDA (Christian Democatic Appeal) became a major political force. Roman Catholic lawyer Dries van Agt (*1931, Justice minister in the Den Uyl cabinet) was appointed main candidate for the upcoming elections.
On March 22 the Den Uyl cabinet was brought down over real estate policy. The CDA ministers stepped down because they felt that the owners of confiscated land did not get enough compensation. After the May 25 elections, the PvdA won 53 seats, CDA 49 and the VVD 28. After 208 days of difficult negotiations, CDA and VVD formed a new cabinet headed by Van Agt.~~~ Satyrical writer Simon Carmiggelt (1913-1987) was awarded the P.C. Hooft prize for Dutch literature.
The leader of the CDA in parliament, Willem Aantjes (1923), originally of the calvinist ARP, was forced to end his political career after it became known that in 1944 he had voluntarily joined the Germanic SS, a Dutch Nazi auxiliary corps. Since Aantjes, like many former ARP members, belonged to the left wing of the CDA, it was likely he was the victim of an inner-party purge.~~~ During the summer, the Dutch team again ended in second place at the World Soccer Championships (held in Argentina). Star player Johan Cruijff had refused to play.
The U.S. and NATO's request to station 48 cruise missiles in the Netherlands caused widespread controversy. The measure was an answer to the Soviet deployment of a new generation of mobile IRBM's. The Inter Church Peace Congress (IKV) played a leading role in the broad popular resistance movement against the NATO decision.~~~ A new OPEC oil price hike caused another petroleum crisis, though it was less serious than in 1973. Again, the Netherlands took advantage by raising the price for its own natural gas exports.
At the May 26 general elections, D'66 made the greatest gains. After three months of negotiations, the second Van Agt cabinet was formed, a coalition of CDA, PvdA and D'66.
During a cabinet crisis on May 12 the PvdA ministers left the government after a row over economic policy. The two remaining coalition partners CDA and D'66 stayed on in a minority cabinet, the third Van Agt cabinet. The PvdA emerged from the September general elections as the biggest party. The VVD, led by young, dynamic Ed Nijpels (*1950), proportionally won most seats. In November Ruud Lubbers (*1939) formed a cabinet of CDA and VVD.~~~ At the end of the year, the OGEM company filed for bankruptcy. Some 20,000 jobs were at stake. The board itself was responsible for the disaster, and it had tried to cover up its own mismanagement.
On February 17 the new constitution became effective. The organization of the state was reformed in many ways. According to article 1, discrimination on grounds of race, color, or religion was made illegal and punishable. This new article expressed the nation's new status as an immigrant country, with sizeable numbers of people from the former colonies, North Africa and Asia. It also proved that discrimination had become a daily reality.~~~ In June the cabinet decided to deploy U.S. cruise missiles at Woensdrecht air base in North Brabant province.~~~ Despite receiving 3 billion guilders in government support, the RSV shipbuilding firm went bankrupt. It was the cabinet that had urged the creation of the company in an effort to rationalize the shipbuilding industry. However, the market for big oil carriers, the firm's specialty, had collapsed. Beginning of the so-called ABP affair, which dragged on until 1987. The ABP national retirement fund (the biggest in the world) was involved in large-scale illegal real estate deals. Some ABP employees also transferred large sums to private accounts in the Channel islands.
On April 20 hundreds of thousands protested in The Hague against the deployment of cruise missiles. It was the biggest demonstration in the nation's history. Many feared that the threshold for nuclear war would be lowered, since the U.S. could no longer be trusted to fire its ICBM's in the case of a Warsaw Pact attack on Western Europe. The U.S. was suspected of defending Europe "until the last European", in the words of Belgian socialist Louis Tobback (*1938)."~~~ Simon van der Meer (*1925) was awarded a Nobel prize for Physics.
Parliament was handed a list with 3.7 million signatures against the deployment of cruise missiles. Like the anti-cruise missile demonstration, the government totally ignored this petition.
Erich Honecker, SED party leader and the GDR's strong man made an official visit and was received by Queen Beatrix.~~~ Parliament approved the delivery of naval vessels to Kuwait, Iraq's ally in the war against Iran.
At the beginning of May, VVD leader Joris Voorhoeve (*1945) brought down the cabinet. His party refused to approve the administration's far reaching environmental measures. The September 6 general elections brought little change. CDA retained its 54 seats and PvdA held on to its 49. The VVD lost 5 seats. The winners were D'66 (from 9 to 12) and the newly created Groen Links (Green Left) party, which went from 3 to 6. With the slimmest possible majority of 76 seats, CDA and PvdA formed a coalition cabinet under Lubbers.~~~ On February 27, the "Breda Two" were released from the prison at Breda. The two were Ferdinand aus der Fünten and Franz Fischer, Nazi war criminals whose death sentence had been commuted to a life sentence.~~~ In the fall the new commercial TV station RTL 4 began broadcasting Goede Tijden Slechte Tijden (Good times, bad times), the first Dutch U.S.-style soap opera. Producers were Joop van den Ende (*1942) and John de Mol.
In February parliament agreed to have Dutch troops take part in a UN "peace mission" in the former Yugoslavia. The unit selected for the operation was the Luchtmobiele Brigade (airborne brigade), a rapid deployment force especially created to soften the effects of drastic budget cuts on army morale.~~~ On October 4 an Israeli El Al transport crashed on an apartment building in Amsterdam's Bijlmermeer quarter, killing 50 people. Before long, thousands of others had health problems, possibly caused by the craft's (secret) cargo.
After a long and heated debate, the senate narrowly approved a law for voluntary euthanasia, slightly broadening the margins of illegal action on the part of physicians.~~~ The DAF truck plant at Eindhoven went bankrupt. Some 5500 workers were fired. Half of these were hired back when the firm made a restart with the help of bank loans and nationwide solidarity contributions from other firms. CEO Cor Baan, under whom the firm had gone bankrupt, also headed the new company.
In July Colonel Karremans, commanding 300 Dutch UN troops protecting the Bosnian town of Srebrenica, handed this safe haven over to General Mladic of the Bosnian Serbs. Under the eyes of the Dutch soldiers, the Serbs immediately began executing muslim men. Military headquarters at The Hague prohibited the soldiers from speaking to the media and tried to hide the truth of the incident by confiscating and destroying films. Parliament ordered an inquiry.~~~ Germany and the Netherlands agreed to form a common army corps within the framework of NATO cooperation. All Dutch combat ready forces (the 20,000 men first army corps) were to be integrated with German troops under joint German-Dutch command. The Royal Netherlands Army largely lost its autonomy. The new corps comprised some 40,000 men and 3,500 armored tracked vehicles. The army also received its first "Fritz helmets", the new U.S. plastic helmets with a design reminiscent of the WW II German Wehrmacht helmet.
At the Amsterdam European summit conference, no agreement was reached on the conditions for Eastern European nations to join the European Union. The meeting was controversial because of tough police measures: 350 persons were preventively arrested.~~~ On March 23 fans of Ajax and Feyenoord came to blows near the A-10 motorway. Carlo Picornie, leader of Ajax' "F-side" hardline fans, was beaten to death with hammers. On September 13, young Meindert Tjoelker was kicked to death by drunks in the northern town of Leeuwarden. These incidents triggered a national debate on "senseless violence" and public safety.~~~ An outbreak of swine fever made it necessary to destroy 9 million pigs (60% of the national total). Damages amounted to 4 billion guilders.
The ruling coalition won the May 6 general elections. PvdA won 45 seats and VVD went to 38, but D'66 lost 10 seats. Green Left doubled its votes and went to 11 seats. CDA scored an all-time low with only 29 seats. On August 3, "Purple II", the second Kok cabinet, was inaugurated.