1880

On August 31, Princess Wilhelmina was born. She was the only child born to King William III and his wife, Queen Emma, Princess of Waldeck-Pyrmont (1858-1934). Emma had become Queen in 1879 through her marriage to William III. The king was born in 1817 and ascended the throne in 1849. His earlier marriage to Princess Sophia Frederika Mathilde of Württemberg (1818-1877) had given him three sons: William (1840-1879), Maurice (1842-1850) and Alexander (1851-1884).~~~ The literary movement of "Tachtig" (Eighty) was founded, initiating a renewal of Dutch literary and cultural life.~~~ Dr. Abraham Kuyper, Calvinist theologian and leader of the conservative Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party, founded the Free University of Amsterdam. This institution was to be a national center of Protestant higher education, science and culture.

1881

The extra-parliamentary cabinet under Count Constant Théodore van Lynden van Sandenburg (1826-1885), having come to power in 1879, weathered a crisis over agricultural policy and electoral reform.~~~ Hendrik Gerhard (1829-1886) and Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (1846-1919) founded the SDB, the Sociaal-Democratische Bond (Social Democratic League). The newspaper Recht voor Allen, (Justice for all) was its official organ.~~~ Creation of the first telephone company, the Nederlandsche Bell-telephoonmaatschappij.

1882

Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis founded the Radicale Bond (Radical League) for the achievement of universal suffrage.

1883

Hermanus J.A.M. Schaepman (1844-1903), a Roman Catholic priest and political leader, published the pamphlet Eene katholieke partij, proeve van een program (A Catholic Party, attempt at a program). It was the basis for a concerted Roman Catholic policy beginning in 1896. However, a Roman Catholic political party was only founded in 1926.~~~ The extra-parliamentary cabinet headed by Count Constant Théodore van Lynden van Sandenburg was brought down for having broadened suffrage without at the same time adapting the constitution. The government was taken over by the third cabinet under Jan Heemskerk Azn. (1818-1897), an extra-parliamentary one like its predecessors. It was composed of conservatives of varied origins and remained in office until 1888, when a revision of the constitution made it necessary to hold general elections.~~~ Dutch dairy farmers were confronted with low prices. The whole countryside was thus affected by a crisis after farmers had seen their profits dwindle due to cheap grain imports from the Americas.~~~ The Algemene Nederlandse Wielrijders Bond (ANWB, General Cyclists' Association) was founded. The ANWB eventually became the Dutch equivalent of the AA and AAA.

1884

After the death of Crown Prince Alexander (June 21), his half sister, Princess Wilhelmina (born in 1880 to King William and his second wife, Princess Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont) became heir to the throne. Prince Alexander's older brothers, William and Maurice, had died in 1879 and 1850, respectively.~~~ Parliamentary elections gave the liberals a minority in the Lower Chamber (Tweede Kamer).~~~ The International Agricultural Exhibition held in Amsterdam made it clear that Dutch agriculture was in urgent need of modernization in order to catch up with foreign competitors. The cabinet ordered a profound investigation of the issue. The Nederlandsch Landbouw-Comité (National Agricultural Committee) was created, the union of several existing agricultural associations.

1885

The Liberal Union, a league of electoral associations, was founded.~~~ Bernardus Hermanus Heldt (1841-1914), member of the left liberal and anti-socialist Algemeen Nederlandsch Werkliedenverbond (ANWV, General Dutch Working Men's Association) was elected in parliament.

1886

A serious conflict over organization and the freedom to do confession, in the Nederlandsch Hervormde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church) resulted in a split. Led by Dr. Abraham Kuyper, the rebel movement (known as Doleantie) formed a new church, the Nederlandse Gereformeerde Kerk.~~~ A parliamentary inquiry into the effects of the Kinderwetje van Van Houten (Van Houten's Child labor law), adopted in 1874, shocked the nation. Though it was forbidden for children under 12 years of age to work in industrial establishments, labor conditions for both children and adults were often still appalling. The inquiry eventually led to the first Labor legislation of 1889.~~~ The Jordaan quarter of Amsterdam was the scene of the so-called Palingoproer (eel riot) on July 25 and 26. The Amsterdam police had forbidden the traditional custom of pulling eels apart for fun. Most inhabitants of the Jordaan lived in bad conditions. Unemployment was high. Many regarded the police as an instrument of the bourgeoisie and therefore the prohibition of their local pastime enraged the population of the Jordaan. In the ensuing riots, 26 people were killed and one hundred were injured. Though there was no connection with socialism, many saw in the eel riots a harbinger of revolution. The socialist Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was sentenced to jail for lese majesty in a newspaper article.~~~ The state commission charged with investigating agriculture began its work. The first cooperative dairy plant was inaugurated in Warga, in the province of Friesland. Since the early 1880s, cooperation had become a popular form of organization in Dutch agriculture. ~~~ Parliament adopted the "Mark" law (Markenwet), regulating the partition of the last remaining marks (commons). The law made it possible to form business corporations for the development of barren lands.~~~ E.G. Verkade founded the steam bread factory De Ruiter, for the production of biscuits that were sold in brightly colored tin cans.

1887

A revision of the constitution broadened the franchise on the basis of the so-called "caoutchouc artikel" (rubber article). Census suffrage was abolished and replaced by a franchise on the basis of "visible signs of aptitude and socio-economic respectability." The number of seats in the Lower Chamber was raised from 75 to one hundred. The Upper Chamber ("senate") held 50 seats. Members of the Lower Chamber were to serve four-year terms. For the socialists and the radicals, the reforms were disappointing since suffrage had not yet been declared general. However, Dr. Abraham Kuyper and Dr. Hermanus Schaepman, the leaders of the Protestants and the Roman Catholics, respectively, were satisfied. Legislation had not fundamentally changed the situation in the educational field. Yet the religious politicians saw possibilities for acquiring state subsidies for religious education.~~~ Albert Heijn opened his first grocery store in Oostzaan. By 1999, it had grown out to be the largest supermarket chain in the world.~~~ The cabinet helped Dutch sugar beet producers by adopting high tariffs on the imports of cane sugar.

1888

The third extra-parliamentary cabinet led by Heemskerk Azn. resigned prior to the general elections. About 300,000 people were allowed to vote, a threefold increase after the previous year's reform. The Heemskerk cabinet was succeeded by the first coalition cabinet led by Baron Aeneas Mackay (1838-1909), which remained in office until 1891. The elections yielded 26 seats for the Roman Catholics and 27 seats for the Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party. Confessional politicians began to take steps towards resolving the social question and were committed to further electoral reform. Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, one of the founding members of the Social Democratic League in 1881 became the first socialist representative. The "Christian" coalition government of Mackay aimed at easing tensions over the issues of educational subsidies and electoral reform. The cabinet realized some improvements in financing religious schools. The Vrije Vrouwenvereeniging (Association of Free Women) was founded. Alphonse Ariëns (1860-1928), a Roman Catholic priest with a strong social conscience, helped to found the Rooms-Katholieke Werkliedenvereeniging (Roman Catholic Working Men's Association).~~~ The Mark law of 1886 made possible the foundation of the Heidemaatschappij(moorland company) for the cultivation of barren lands.

1889

Parliament adopted the first labor legislation. The 1886 parliamentary inquiry into the effects of the Van Houten bill (prohibiting industrial labor for children under 12) had shown that labor conditions in industry were still appalling. In order to enforce the new legislation, prohibiting child labor and regulating labor conditions for children between 12 and 16 years of age and for women, a bureau of labor inspection was created. The Mackay cabinet began to subsidize religious schools on the basis of a new education law.~~~ In important step in sports organization was made with the creation of the Nederlandsche Voetbal Bond (Dutch Football Association, football meaning soccer).

1890

King William III died of a kidney disease on November 23 in Loo palace, near Apeldoorn. Earlier in the fall, the Raad van State (supreme state council) had taken over the government and Queen Emma had been appointed regent on November 14. With Princess Wilhelmina still only ten years old, her mother would stay on as regent until she would be of age (1898). The personal union with Luxemburg came to an end, since only men were allowed to succeed to the grand ducal throne.~~~ The state agricultural committee (appointed in 1886), published its report. The committee made recommendations to improve agricultural education.

1891

The liberals won a big victory in the general elections, which caused the fall of the first coalition cabinet under Baron Aeneas Mackay. A new liberal cabinet under the mayor of Amsterdam, Jonkheer Gijsbert van Tienhoven (1841-1914) and Joannes P. R. Tak van Poortvliet (1839-1904) was formed, remaining in office until 1894.~~~ The Papal encyclical Rerum Novarum (a directive on new developments in modern industrialized society), advocated a Christian social policy: only with love, harmony and cooperative organizations could a socially just society take shape. Rerum Novarum was anti-Liberal and anti-Marxist and strongly opposed the class struggle.~~~ Foundation of the Philips Light Bulb company (Philips' Gloeilampenfabriek) at Eindhoven.

1892

N.G. Pierson (1839-1909), minister of the treasury in the liberal cabinet Van Tienhoven-Tak van Poortvliet, initiated fiscal legislation that laid the basis for the modern tax system in the Netherlands (abolition of the accise on soap, lowering of the accise on salt, lowering of corporate, estate and property taxes). Pierson intended to increase national buying power by a general shift toward direct taxing. Lower incomes were thus given an advantage.~~~ The group that under Dr. Abraham Kuyper had split off from the mainstream Dutch Reformed Church in 1886 (the Doleantie), combined with the secessionists of 1834 (Afscheiding van 1834) to form the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland). The Christian Reformed did not join the new church and remained an independent organization.

1893

The country reached the bottom of a long economic depression. The nadir lasted until 1895.~~~ The Nationaal Arbeidssecretariaat (National Labor Secretariat) was founded, a labor union that tried to foment the class struggle. Since this group had a strong anarchist influence, parliamentary socialists cultivated few ties with it.

1894

Foundation of the S.D.A.P. (Sociaal-Democratische Arbeiders Partij, social democratic workers' party), by Pieter J. Troelstra (1860-1930), Willem H. Vliegen (1862-1947) and Johan H.A. Schaper (1868-1934). The Marxist SDAP seceded from the radical social democratic league composed of anti-parliamentary free socialists tending towards anarchism.~~~ After a series of successful strikes, Henri Polak (1868-1943) and Jan van Zutphen (1863-1958) founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Diamantbewerkers Bond (general association of Dutch diamond workers).~~~ Wilhelmina Drucker (1847-1925), a radical feminist, founded the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (association for female suffrage).~~~ The general elections were marked by the opposition between supporters and opponents of prime minister Tak van Poortvliet ("takkianen" and "anti-takkianen"). They were divided on the issue of Tak's proposal to widen the franchise. Some believed that Tak's plans to give the vote to literate self-supporting males were unconstitutional. The leadership of the Liberal Union agreed with minister Tak van Poortvliet. The franchise became the main issue of the general elections, thus blurring the traditional differences between liberals, conservatives and religious parties. The elections for the Lower Chamber ended in a victory (56 seats) for Tak's opponents. His supporters won the other 44 seats. The new cabinet was also a liberal one, headed by Jonkheer Joan Roëll (1844-1914) and Samuel van Houten. However, the new cabinet was also to step down (in 1897) over the franchise issue.~~~ Alexander F. de Savornin Lohman (1837-1924), a conservative member of the Anti-Revolutionary Party, left the party with a group of followers. They objected to Dr. Abraham Kuyper's socially radical views. The secessionists would form a separate party in 1908.

1895

Adoption of the safety law.~~~ The economy began to recover from a long crisis (lasting since 1873, reaching a nadir in 1893).~~~ The Van Gelder paper mill in Velsen began its operations. It was first mill in the Netherlands, which on the basis of the cellulose process produced cheap rotation paper (such as newsprint).

1896

Hermanus J.A.M. Schaepman defined a united Roman Catholic policy on the basis of his own pamphlet published thirteen years earlier. The 1891 papal encyclical Rerum Novarum was another source of inspiration.~~~ Parliament approved the Stoomwet, regulatory legislation for steam engines.~~~ Running contrary to J.P.R. Tak van Poortvliet's drastic proposals for widening the suffrage (to include all literate, economically independent males), interior minister S. van Houten increased the franchise within the bounds of the constitution. Positive criteria of wealth underlay the new proposals for enfranchisement. The newly enfranchised included tax-voters, wage-voters, pension-voters, savings account-voters and exam-voters. The number of voters was doubled to 600,000. Still, only half of the adult male population had the right to vote.~~~ Mister Backx, an affluent notary public, became the nation's first owner and driver of a private motor vehicle.~~~ Foundation of the Nederlandsche Boerenbond (Netherlands Farmers' League), enjoying broad support in largely Roman Catholic rural areas (North Brabant, Limburg and portions of Guelders).

1897

The liberal cabinet Roëll-Van Houten stepped down over the issue of electoral reform. It was succeeded by the liberal cabinet under Pierson and Goeman Borgesius, which stayed in office until the scheduled elections of 1901. The new administration has entered history as the "cabinet of social justice" on account of the impressive amount of social legislation it introduced: the accidents law of 1901 (a modest beginning of social security legislation), housing law (1901), child protection legislation, food and health laws, legislation limiting working hours. The improved economy permitted this progressive social legislation. The cabinet ordered the nationalization of all private telephone companies.

1898

Princess Wilhelmina was crowned Queen of the Netherlands on September 6, after having reached the age of 18 years on August 31. Her mother, Queen Emma, had acted as regent after the death of King William III in 1890.~~~ Parliament adopted the national draft and the abolition of the replacement system under which recruits from rich families could avoid military service.~~~ The first cooperative agricultural banks were founded.

1899

C.Th. van Deventer's article "Een Eereschuld" (a debt of honor) on colonial policy, set off a lively public debate on the Netherlands East Indies. As a result, Dutch colonial policy was radically transformed. Two years later, Van Deventer's ideas were transformed into a new liberal colonial policy, the so-called Ethische Politiek (ethical policy). It was in effect a kind of development aid within a colonial framework.~~~ Beginning of the Boer War between the descendants of Dutch Protestant settlers in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State and the British colonial regime in South Africa. The conflict is also known as the Second African War of Liberation.~~~ The First International Peace Conference at the Hague was organized on the initiative of Czar Nicholas II of Russia. Queen Wilhelmina took care of the invitations. The attendants of the conference decided to establish an International Court of Justice in The Hague.~~~ Foundation of the CBS (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Central Board of Statistics) and of Staatsbosbeheer, the national forest administration. The latter was entrusted with the planting of new forests, cultivating barren lands and of keeping forests in good order.~~~ First electrical streetcar line from Haarlem to Zandvoort.

1900

Parliament adopted legislation for compulsory primary education, despite strong resistance from the confessional and socialist members of the Lower Chamber. The confessional representatives only wanted to approve legislation that would at the same time also finance religious education, while the socialists claimed the new law would only work if the poor were subsidized for their school age children.~~~ Though there was deep sympathy among the Dutch public for the South African Boers in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State resisting conquest by the British, it was not deemed a reason for Dutch military support for the Boers or active participation in the war. Nor were there any better reasons for intervention. It did not count that the Boers were descendants of Dutch colonists, that they were Protestant and that they spoke a kind of Dutch. The strong anti-British feeling ran high in the Netherlands but it was not translated into political terms. When Boer leader Paul Krüger was forced to leave his country partly for health reasons, the Dutch government dispatched the armored cruiser H.M.S. Gelderland to pick him up at the port of Lourenco Marques in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique.

1901

Hendrik Pieter Marchant (1869-1956) was among the founding members of the Vrijzinnig Democratische Bond (free democratic league), a secession movement from the Liberal Union. The split arose over the refusal of the liberal leadership to make universal suffrage for both men and women a plank in the election platform. The democratic league was joined by the radical league (Radicale Bond), founded by Marie Willem Frederik Treub (1858-1931) in 1892 after liberal leaders had resisted to include the issues of general suffrage and social legislation in the party program.~~~ Parliament adopted the accidents law, the first piece of Dutch social security legislation. It made insurance against the financial consequences of accidents obligatory for employees that were deemed particularly at risk. The housing law was also adopted.~~~ The liberal cabinet led by Pierson and Goeman Borgesius stepped down. General elections produced a defeat for the liberals, who only won 35 seats in parliament. The religious parties won a great victory, enabling them to form the first Christian coalition government under Dr. Abraham Kuyper. The new cabinet remained in office until 1905. Domestically, the new cabinet proposed to regulate labor relations. The cornerstone of the cabinet's foreign policy was the strengthening of the ties with Germany.

1902

The Dutch government mediated in the peace negotiations between the Boers and the British, leading to the Peace of Vereeniging.

1903

The Kuyper cabinet introduced so-called worgwetten (strangulation laws) to cope with labor unrest, prohibiting government workers to strike after workers of the Blauwhoedenveem storage company in the port of Amsterdam had organized a first successful strike. Railroad workers had declared their solidarity with the strikers. This was a risky thing to do since railroad personnel were civil servants. The general strike called in protest against the new legislation failed due to a lack of unity and cooperation between political parties and strikers.~~~ At Loosduinen near the Hague, the first glass houses for horticulture were inaugurated. It was the first step towards the rationalization and concentration of the growing of fruits and vegetables.

1904

1905

Parliament voted a new higher education law that put private (religious) colleges and universities on the same level with state schools. The basic education law gave more privileges to private, religious schools than to public schools.~~~ The general elections were a disappointment for Dr. Abraham Kuyper and his Anti-Revolutionary Party. Kuyper himself was to blame, for having caused unnecessary polarization. His "antithesis" theory rejected the accomplishments of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment and preached the subjection of the individual to the common good. Christian and modern concepts of life were thus made to look mutually exclusive. The Kuyper cabinet (formed in 1901) stepped down and was replaced by a liberal cabinet under De Meester and Van Raalte. The new cabinet fell two years later over the issue of the war budget.

1906

The liberals had promised to cut the military budget but war minister Major-General H.P. Staal (1845-1920) could offer little perspective for cuts. He promised to act judiciously but not cheaply. During the debate on the military budget, known as "Nacht van Staal" (Staal's night, also meaning "night of steel," since Staal in Dutch means "steel"), parliament approved the proposals.~~~ Social democrats founded the Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen (NVV, National Association of trade unions).

1907

The war budget for 1907 that had already been approved in the Lower Chamber was held up in the Upper Chamber. The members of the Upper Chamber made the survival of the cabinet contingent on their vote on the war budget. This was the first time ever that the Upper Chamber had acted in such a fashion. The cabinet reacted by offering its resignation, but eventually only the ministers for war and the navy stepped down. At the end of the year, the cabinet was yet brought down over the war budget. A new cabinet could only take office the following year.~~~ The Second International Peace Conference was held in The Hague. The "international community" signed the land war protocol, an agreement laying down a set of fundamental laws of war on land, prohibiting the use of certain kinds of weapons and practices that were considered inhuman.~~~ The tithe, an antiquated tax still levied on some real estate, was finally abolished.~~~ The Royal Dutch Petroleum Company merged with the British Shell transport company. The new firm was christened Royal Dutch Shell and soon became one of the world's biggest oil companies.

1908

Foundation of the Christelijk Historische Unie (CHU, Christian Historical Union). It was founded after A.F. de Savornin Lohman and his followers seceded from the Anti-Revolutionary Party in 1895 over the issue of the franchise. The liberal cabinet under De Meester and Van Raalte was replaced by the third coalition cabinet headed by Heemskerk Jzn, which stayed in office until the scheduled elections of 1913.~~~ Representatives of the Netherlands, Germany, Great Britain, France, Denmark and Sweden signed the North Sea treaty of Berlin, vowing to respect the existing status of coastal areas.~~~ Foundation of Boedi Oetomo (Budi Utomo), a pseudo political movement of Javanese in the Netherlands East Indies that aimed at the intellectual emancipation of the population.~~~ Opening of the first electric railroad from Rotterdam to The Hague and the seaside resort of Scheveningen, by way of Pijnacker (the so-called "Hofpleinlijntje," or Hofplein line).

1909

1910

1911

Sarekat Islam was founded in the Netherlands East Indies. It was the first nationalist movement in Indonesia, which followed the principles of Islam.

1912

Parliament voted the Armenwet (poor law, predecessor of the Algemene Bijstandswet, general social assistance law); in the first instance, the poor were to receive material support from private and religious charities. Government support would be made available only in the last instance.

1913

The International Court of Arbitration was founded and headquartered in The Hague. A few months later, the court was housed in the Peace Palace, built with generous financial support from individuals like the American steel king, Andrew Carnegie. Labor minister Reverend Aritius Sybrandus Talma (ARP, 1864-1916) introduced significant social legislation. After the 1911 labor law, he rounded off his work with the sickness, invalidity and old-age laws (1913). As a result, wage earners below a certain income level were ensured of reasonable compensation (payment) in case they were to become invalids. Minister for war Hendrik Colijn (1869-1944, ARP, a decorated veteran of colonial wars and a manager of the Shell corporation) introduced legislation for the improvement of national defense. The tense international situation made this necessary.~~~ The third coalition cabinet remained in office till the scheduled elections. These resulted in a resounding victory of the so-called concentration, a loose alliance of socialists and various liberal groups and parties. However, the socialists refused to assume government responsibility. After a long crisis an extra-parliamentary cabinet was formed under the liberal Pieter W.A. Cort van der Linden (1846-1935). The new cabinet stayed on until 1918. Minister of agriculture, trade and industry, M.W.F. Treub (Free democratic league), became minister of the treasury as well in the following year. During the ensuing war years, Treub was to play a key role in the administration.

1914

The nation was completely surprised when the Great War broke out. On July 27, one day before Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, the Dutch foreign secretary, Jonkheer John Loudon (1866-1955), discussed world politics with the British envoy in The Hague. Neither imagined that a great war was imminent. On July 30 the Dutch cabinet recognized the danger of war. The government declared the Netherlands to be neutral and ordered a high state of readiness for the defense forces stationed along the coast and the borders. On July 31 general mobilization was announced. Lieutenant-General C.J. Snijders (1852-1939) was appointed supreme commander of the army and the navy. The announcement of neutrality proved effective. Although the German war plan (made by General A. von Schlieffen) called for a march through Dutch territory (Limburg province) on the way to Belgium, the German supreme commander, General H. von Moltke, carefully avoided antagonizing the Dutch. The access to the Scheldt river, officially international waters, but declared neutral by the Dutch government, constituted a sensitive problem. The German attack on Belgium cut off the negotiations between the Dutch and the Belgians for military cooperation.~~~ At first, only Dutch shipping suspected of carrying contraband seemed to suffer from German and British naval actions. Soon, however, all Dutch ships, irrespective of their cargoes, were at the mercy of the German and the British navies.~~~ The outbreak of the war caused a run on the Nederlandsche Bank, the national bank. The public was anxious to exchange its paper money for gold. Many withdrew their deposits from merchant and deposit banks. As a result all payments were threatened due to an acute shortage of silver and gold coinage. Emergency money therefore had to be printed. The stock exchange was closed immediately after the beginning of the war in order to prevent a panic. The sale of consumer goods soared.~~~ In order to continue overseas imports the government had to give guarantees (especially to Great Britain) regarding the final destination of the goods. The Nederlandsche Overzeese Trust maatschappij (NOT, Netherlands Overseas Trust corporation) was charged with this task. At first, the NOT concentrated on contraband goods but after all Dutch shipping was beginning to reel under the weight of military actions, all goods were brought under its control. One of the leading board members of the NOT was the banker Cornelis J.K. van Aalst (1866-1939).~~~ The cabinet introduced legislation for universal male suffrage. Three years later, parliament approved the proposal.

1915

On February 22, supreme commander General C.J. Snijders requested a revision of the military guidelines for neutrality. It was becoming obvious that it was quite cumbersome to man three different frontlines. In taking this step, General Snijders transcended the traditional bounds of political reticence believed appropriate for a soldier. Snijders wanted to know exactly if the principles of neutrality would be strictly observed, i.e. whether the government would resist any violation of the national territory, or instead cooperate with the violator's enemy as a logical ally. Throughout the war, the cabinet maintained its stance of absolute neutrality in all directions. General Snijders found it hard to deal with this policy.~~~ After the German navy had torpedoed some Dutch ships in March and April, the defenses of the province of Zeeland (along the Scheldt River) were improved. Dutch public opinion was shocked by the German transgressions. However, for the time being, a Dutch participation in the war on the side of the Entente (Allies) was out of the question.~~~ In the second half of the year, the NOT began to exert increasing control over the import of all sorts of merchandise. The NOT had been created the previous year in order to give guarantees to the British that no contraband was being transported by Dutch ships.

1916

Especially German submarines further endangered neutral Dutch shipping. The British navy reacted by stopping Dutch ships at sea and confiscating their cargoes. In the summer of 1916, the British navy captured the entire Dutch fishing fleet and took it to British ports. Presumably, the British suspected the Dutch of selling their catch to the Germans. Although the British actions constituted a violation of international law, the Dutch fishing fleet was only returned after the government had promised not to sell more than 25% of the catch to Germany. Dutch neutrality came under strong pressure when a German source disclosed that the British were contemplating an offensive against Germany from the left bank of the River Scheldt. Since this would constitute a violation Dutch neutrality, the Germans expected the Netherlands to take corresponding defensive measures. As the cabinet discussed the merits of a second mobilization, it turned out that the rumors were ill founded. Modern opinion regards the German signal as a test of Dutch neutrality, since for the Germans the security of the Scheldt was of vital importance. Given the rickety condition of Dutch defenses it was sheer luck that there were no further challenges. However, the Germans at least for the moment seemed to respect the Dutch armed forces: in the fall they postponed their strategy of unrestricted submarine warfare for fear of a Dutch attack in the back.

1917

On February 1, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hopes of forcing Britain to its knees after its peace proposals had been rejected. Though a few months earlier the Germans had shirked from declaring unrestricted submarine warfare for fear of a Dutch attack, now it was precisely this declaration that brought the United States into the war (April 6).~~~ Great Britain objected to the transit of German goods across Dutch territory. Though for some time, Germany had been exporting to Belgium through the Netherlands, the British government decided that sand and pebbles (for road maintenance) should be excluded, since these materials eventually benefited the German war effort. After Britain and the Netherlands failed to reach an agreement on this issue, Britain punished the Netherlands by blocking the transmission of Dutch business telegrams through British-owned cables (October 2). As a result, the communications between the Netherlands and the Netherlands East Indies were cut.~~~ The constitutional revision was completed. Universal male suffrage was to be introduced as well as proportional representation. Public and private schools were to be equally funded. Since a number of issues that had dominated Dutch politics over the past decades were now finally resolved, the new agreements became known as the "pacification." In June and July potato riots (caused by the distribution of inferior potatoes) shook the city of Amsterdam.~~~ In September, the Nederlandsche Uitvoer Maatschappij(NUM, National Export Company) was created. It was to be central authority for the organization and regulation (by establishing quotas) for Dutch exports.

1918

On February 9, Great Britain ended the blockade for Dutch business telegrams through British-owned cables. Communications with the Netherlands East Indies were reestablished after having been interrupted on October 2, 1917. The matter of the transit of goods across Dutch territory again became an important issue when the United States requisitioned the entire Dutch merchant marine. The U.S. government urgently needed extra cargo capacity for moving its troops and materiel to the European war theater. Great Britain also confiscated Dutch ships. In an effort to enforce its demands, the U.S. government threatened to halt wheat shipments to the Netherlands. The Dutch cabinet had no other option but to cede to U.S. demands. As a reaction, the German supreme command demanded Dutch permission for the transit of goods destined for the German troops in Flanders. This pressure, plus the German desire to station anti aircraft and anti-shipping guns on Dutch territory for the protection of German positions brought the Netherlands to the brink of active participation in the war. Though the German civilian government did not support these demands, General Erich von Ludendorff was given a chance to make plans for the occupation of Limburg and the left bank of the Scheldt River (Zeeuws Vlaanderen). The cabinet therefore acceded to German wishes regarding the transit of troops and materiel to the front in Flanders.~~~ When German troops were withdrawn in the fall, Dutch territorial integrity was threatened once again. The cabinet contemplated another mobilization. This caused serious rioting to break out in the Harskamp, the main army camp in the central part of the country. Soldiers mutinied when their leave permits were suddenly withdrawn. Supreme commander General C.J. Snijders, whose relationship with the cabinet had been tense for quite a while, was dismissed for his harsh punishment of the mutineers. In effect, however, the repression was a welcome pretext for getting rid of the general, who had long caused irritation among cabinet ministers.~~~ The September general elections were a big disappointment for the liberals. The extra-parliamentary cabinet under Cort van der Linden stepped down and was succeeded by the fourth coalition cabinet under the Roman Catholic politician Ruys de Beerenbrouck (1873-1936). The new administration remained in office until 1922.~~~ On November 11, Socialist leader Pieter Jelles Troelstra (SDAP) tried to unleash a revolution in Rotterdam, inspired by revolutionary events in Germany. In Munich, Hamburg and Berlin, revolutionary soldiers and workers had taken over the government. A few days later, Troelstra had to admit his error in gauging the political climate. Troelstra's move was also partly the result of internal tensions within the SDAP, whose unflinchingly loyal support of the government during the war had caused misgivings among many of its members. Public support for the prevailing political regime found expression in a massive pro-government demonstration in Malieveldpark in The Hague.~~~ On April 24, the Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij(SGP, politically reformed party) was founded, a small conservative Calvinist party.~~~ On November 10, German Emperor Wilhelm II, fleeing from his country, received political asylum in the Netherlands.~~~ Other important events were the foundation (in January) of the Postcheque- en Girodienst (PCGD, Postal Cheque and Giro Service), a financial service that brought banking services within the reach of the public; the foundation of the Hoogovens steel mill in Velsen; and the beginning of the Zuiderzee project. Parliament had voted legislation providing for the creation of land in the inland sea.~~~ The Spanish Flu caused many deaths (17,400).~~~ In the Netherlands East Indies, the Volksraad (People's council) was inaugurated, as a first, though very modest, step towards self-government. The Volksraad could only advise the Governor General in Batavia and could therefore not be regarded as a parliament.

1919

Women received the right to vote thanks to legislation introduced by the liberal member of parliament, Hendrik Pieter Marchant. The minister of Agriculture, Trade and Industry, the Roman Catholic politician Petrus J.M. Aalberse (1871-1948), adapted the labor law, prohibiting children under 15 years of age from doing industrial labor. The eight-hour day and the 45-hour week were introduced. However, the depression that set in shortly afterward forced the government to limit the applicability of the law.~~~ After an initial postwar economic boom that lasted until 1920, a sharp decline set in.~~~ Queen Wilhelmina refused to cooperate with the victorious powers (France, Britain, Italy and the U.S.) who requested the extradition of the deposed German Emperor, Wilhelm II. The monarch was allowed to live in peace in his palace at Doorn.