After the death of Emperor Frederick II, Sicily entered upon the period known as the "great Interregnum," since there was no royal authority on the island. Conrad IV, the son of Frederick II, was reelected as king of Germany. ~~~ The Folkung dynasty came to power in Sweden. That same year, Stockholm was founded.
1251
After a long resistance against the advancing German and Polish Christians, the Lithuanians, the last remaining non-Christian people in Europe, formed a separate state. The Lithuanian Prince Mindog had himself baptized and thus set an example for his subjects. ~~~ King Conrad IV of Germany began a visit to Italy. Pope Innocent IV also returned to Italy after his exile to Lyons beginning in 1245.
1252
Alexander Nevski, prince of Novgorod, Vladimir and Suzdal embarked upon a ten-year reign as prince of "Suzdalya," making a renewed effort to unite all Russian territories into one single political unit. ~~~ King Conrad IV of Germany reached Southern Italy.
1253
Ottokar II became King of Bohemia. During his reign, lasting until 1278, Bohemia reached its period of greatness.
1254
The deaths of King Conrad IV of Germany and of Pope Innocent IV had a negative effect on international stability. ~~~ Manfred, the natural son of Emperor Frederick II became regent of Sicily after the death of his half-brother Conrad and tried to bring new life to the party of the Ghibellines. ~~~ King Béla IV of Hungary established sovereignty over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
1255
Manfred tried in vain to move Pope Alexander IV to crown him king of Sicily.
1256
Count William II of Holland and Zealand, who had been crowned king of Germany in 1248 amidst serious political turmoil, was killed during a campaign against the Frisians. William was only 29 years old.
1257
King Henry III of England was defeated in his campaign against Wales. ~~~ Members of the Imperial Diet of Germany (Cologne, Mainz, Pfalz, Bohemia) meeting at Frankfurt first elected Richard of Cornwall, (brother-in-law of Frederick II and brother of King Henry III of England), king of Germany. Other delegates (Trier, Saxony, Brandenburg, later also Bohemia) elected Alfonso X "the Wise" of Castile (grandson of Philip of Swabia). Only Richard ever came to Germany to be crowned and ruled for almost four years, operating from his base of support in the Rhineland. ~~~ Manfred formed an alliance with the city of Genoa.
1258
Using deceit and trickery, Manfred managed to have himself crowned king of Sicily but was excommunicated for doing so. ~~~ King Henry III of England was forced to grant the nobles the privilege to control the exertion of royal authority.
1259
According to the Peace Treaty of Paris, King Henry III of England had to renounce definitively his rights to Normandy, Maine, Anjou and Poitou. King Louis IX of France moreover demanded that King Henry do homage for his rule over Aquitaine, the Southwestern part of France.
After the death of its ruler, Ezzelino da Romano, the Scaligeri family ruled the Italian city of Verona. Its first leader was Mastino della Scala. ~~~ In the Battle of Montaperti, the Tuscan Ghibellines, aided by King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelfs, who were forced to leave the city.
1261
Michael VIII Paleologus, Byzantine emperor of Nicaea, conquered Constantinople and thus destroyed the Latin Empire of the East. Michael restored the Byzantine Empire. The Genoese, the perennial rivals of the Venetians, received important privileges and replaced the Venetians who had supported the Latin Empire and had enjoyed supremacy while it lasted. ~~~ King Haakon IV of Norway began the forceful subjection of Iceland and Greenland.
1262
Pope Urban IV offered the crown of Sicily to Charles of Anjou, the brother of the king of France. Princess Constance, daughter of Manfred, was married to Prince Peter of Aragon. The involvement of the houses of Anjou and Aragon in Sicilian politics dates from this fateful year. ~~~ When the city of Cadiz fell into Castilian hands, the first "heroic" phase of the "Reconquest" of Spain came to an end. King James I of Aragon created a subject kingdom on the Balearics for his dynasty.
1263
Charles of Anjou received the crown of Sicily from Pope Urban IV and in return promised to help the pope in his struggle against Manfred. ~~~ Daniel, founder of the Danilovitch dynasty and son of Alexander Nevski, inherited the principality of Moscow. ~~~ The Mamelukes, a corps of elite mercenaries in the service of the rulers of Egypt, expelled the crusaders from Antioch (in present-day Turkey), one of the key strategic strongholds in the Near East.
1264
The Byzantine Empire reconquered Macedonia, which until then had been in Bulgarian hands. ~~~ The conflict between the king and the nobility again flared up in England.
1265
The death during the Battle of Evesham of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (leader of the English barons in their conflict with the King), ended the civil war. In 1258 Montfort had forced the King to admit the barons' participation in official government decision making. In January 1265, Montfort had summoned a new parliament with representatives from the lesser nobility and a number of towns. The Scots conquered the Island of Man in the Irish Sea, which until then had been subject to Norwegian authority.
1266
King Manfred of Sicily was killed in the Battle of Beneventum in Southern Italy. The victor was Charles of Anjou, who had already been crowned king of Sicily by Pope Urban IV. King Charles captured the widow and young sons of Manfred and had them languish in jail until their deaths. ~~~ King James I "The Conqueror" of Aragon conquered the Kingdom of Murcia for Castile. ~~~ King Eric "The Priest Hater" (1262-1299) of Norway handed over the Orkney and Shetland Islands to Scotland.
1267
After the death in the Battle of Beneventum of the leader of the Ghibelline party, King Manfred of Sicily, the Florentine Guelfs returned to their city and threw out the Ghibellines.
1268
Prince Conradin of Swabia (son of King Conrad IV), a boy of only 14 years old, was invited to come to Italy by the Ghibelline party and by those who hoped he would help them fight Charles of Anjou. Though the pope excommunicated him, some town governments supported him and helped him gain a victory over the Guelfs in the Arno Valley in Tuscany, thus opening the road to Rome. Charles of Anjou in the Battle of Tagliacozzo smashed Conradin's army. Conradin was taken prisoner and executed two months later in Naples. The dynasty of Swabia came to its end with him.
1269
King Ottokar II of Bohemia conquered and occupied Carinthia and Carniola (now known as Slovenia). ~~~ Charles of Anjou initiated the conquest of Southern Italy, using excessive cruelty and violence. ~~~ The Mentese Turks conquered the port cities of Caria, a region in Southwestern Asia Minor, dealing a severe blow to the fledgling restored Byzantine Empire.
King Louis IX of France led the Seventh Crusade. The initial purpose was the occupation of Tunis in Northern Africa. The expedition, however, was hit by a serious epidemic, killing so many men, including King Louis himself, that it became inevitable to abandon the venture.
1271
King Philip III of France inherited the domains of Alphonse of Poitiers, who in turn had inherited the domains of the counts of Toulouse.
1272
Edward I became King of England after the death of King Henry III. ~~~ King Philip III of France established his authority over Lyons and surroundings. ~~~ Prince Urus Nemanya of Serbia conquered the Vardar Valley. ~~~ Byzantine Emperor Michael I Paleologus placed the Churches of Serbia and Bulgaria under the supreme authority of the Orthodox Church at Constantinople.
1273
Rudolph of Habsburg was elected King of Germany. ~~~ The Genoese defeated the fleet of Charles of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily.
1274
The Council of Lyons decided to join the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches into one great Christian Church.
1275
The bishops of the Rhineland formed an alliance directed against the new King of Germany, Rudolph of Habsburg. ~~~ Charles of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily was defeated in the Battle of Roccavioni and therefore had to withdraw from Piedmont. ~~~ The Council of Lyons caused de split in the Greek Orthodox Church with its decision to form a big unified Christian Church.
1276
Beginning of the war between Rudolph of Germany and King Ottokar II of Bohemia. ~~~ King James I of Aragon died and was succeeded by his son, Peter III. At Palma de Mallorca, the famous scholar Ramón Llull founded a training institute for missionaries destined to work in the Near East. King Philip III of France tried to meddle in the succession to the throne in Castile. ~~~ King Edward I of England suppressed a rebellion in Wales led by Llewelyn. ~~~ After the death of Urus Nemanya of Serbia, who had made his kingdom the most powerful state in the Balkans, he was succeeded by Dragutin.
1277
After defeating Napoleone della Torre in the Battle of Desio, Otto Visconti, archbishop of Milan, was proclaimed lord of Milan by the townsmen.
1278
Rudolph of Habsburg defeated his overlord, King Ottokar II of Bohemia, in the Battle of Dürnkrut. Ottokar was killed in combat. The victory enabled Rudolph to make Austria independent of Bohemia, to which it belonged. Duke Henry of Bavaria rose in rebellion against his lord, Rudolph of Habsburg. ~~~ Pope Nicholas III curtailed the power and influence of Charles of Anjou in Rome and Tuscany.
1279
King Dinis ascended the throne of Portugal and laid the basis for Portugal's overseas expansion by building a powerful navy. ~~~ Pope Nicholas III established his authority in the Romagna region and Tuscany.
Pope Nicholas III died and was succeeded by Pope Martin IV, who ascended the papal throne in 1281.
1281
King Philip III of France forced the city of Toul to accept his supreme authority. ~~~ Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily used his influence to have Martin IV elected pope.
1282
On the last two days of March, the Sicilians massively rebelled against the rule of Charles of Anjou, which they deemed unjust and excessively cruel. Many of the king's henchmen and assistants were murdered, with the remainder seeking refuge abroad. This rebellion is known as the "Sicilian Vespers." The rebels invoked the aid of King Peter III of Aragon, the grandson of King Manfred. ~~~ The Welsh rebel leader Llewelyn was killed during a renewed revolt against the English occupation army in Wales.
1283
Charles of Anjou's attempt to land an army on the coast of Sicily was thwarted. ~~~ The Council of Paris proclaimed the autonomy of the French (or "Gallican") Church from Rome. The French bishops declared that they would henceforth only acknowledge the authority of the pope in purely theological matters. ~~~ King Milyutin of Serbia conquered the Seres region.
1284
The Pisan fleet was defeated by the Genoese in the naval Battle of Meloria, near Leghorn (Livorno). The defeat signified the definitive end of Pisan naval power. There were also political consequences for Pisa, as Count Ugolino della Gherardesca, a well-known Guelf enjoying great popularity among the lower and middle groups, was elected mayor (podestá). ~~~ King Edward I of England annexed Wales and incorporated it into England. ~~~ Crown Prince ("Dauphin") Philip The Fair of France married Joan of Navarre.
1285
Upon the death of King Philip III, The Bold of France, his son, Philip IV The Fair, succeeded him. Just prior to his death, King Philip III had begun a military campaign against Aragon. ~~~ King Peter III of Aragon died and was succeeded by Alfonso III. ~~~ King Edward I of England curtailed the liberties and privileges of the city of London. ~~~ Charles of Anjou, king of Naples and Sicily and Pope Martin IV both died. Pope Honorius IV succeeded the latter.
1286
France and England signed a treaty at Paris. ~~~ King Eric V Klipping ("blinking with his eyes") of Denmark was assassinated. King Eric had made many enemies through his style of government. A long quarrel with archbishop Jacob Erlandsen earned him the anger of the pope, who excommunicated the entire kingdom. King Eric Klipping was succeeded by his son, Eric VI Menved ("Man's word"), who like his father also began a quarrel with the nobility and the Church.
1287
King Philip IV The Fair of France and King Alfonso III of Aragon reached an agreement over the political situation in Naples and Sicily. King Alfonso had to recognize the right of the Aragonese nobility to rebel against the king in case they entertained serious misgivings about his government. ~~~ Sultan Kalwan of Egypt, conquered the region of Laodicaea in Greece. ~~~ The Mongols (also known as Tartars) invaded Poland for the last time.
1288
Supported by archbishop Ruggero degli Ubaldini, the Pisan nobility rebelled against the administration of count Ugolino della Gherardesca. Count Ugolino was toppled and thrown in jail and starved to death.
1289
The Mamelukes, elite mercenaries in the service of the Egyptian sultan, conquered Tripoli on the Lebanon coast, one of the last places in the Near East still under crusader control. ~~~ The army of Arezzo, the last Ghibelline stronghold in Tuscany, was defeated by the Guelf alliance of Tuscan cities in the Battle of Campaldino.
King Edward I of England had his supreme political authority recognized by the candidates for the Scottish throne. The Jews were expelled from England. ~~~ In this same year, the Romanian principalities were probably founded.
1291
The three original Swiss Cantons ("Urkantone"), Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, formed an eternal alliance in their common struggle against the House of Habsburg, to which they had to pay tribute money. ~~~ The sultan of Egypt conquered Acre, the very last city in the Near East still held by crusaders.
1292
Count Adolph of Nassau was elected king of Germany.
1293
Giano della Bella, leader of the Florentine artisans, convinced the municipal administration to decree that only the members of legally recognized trade guilds were allowed to participate in politics.
1294
Pope Celestine V abdicated after a term of only five months. Boniface VIII was elected pope in his place.
1295
King Edward I of England opened a parliament with two chambers, or houses, the so-called Model Parliament, thus further consolidating the parliamentary form of government in the kingdom.
1296
The Sicilian population proclaimed Frederick of Aragon as their king. ~~~ King Edward I of England deposed John Balliol, King of Scotland and ordered the occupation of Scotland. Thus, Edward exerted power over most of Great Britain.
1297
King Philip IV The Fair ordered the occupation of Flanders, one of the richest parts of Europe on account of its booming textile (woolen) industry. The French occupation prompted Flemish cities and the nobility to form a resistance movement. ~~~ The Scots rose in rebellion against the English occupation. Under their leader, William Wallace, the Scots defeated the English in the Battle of Stirling. ~~~ In Venice, the power of the aristocracy was consolidated by the decree that henceforth, members of the "Consiglio," the supreme governing body, could only come from families that had already sat on it in the past.
1298
After the Genoese had defeated the Venetian navy in the Battle of Curzola, an island near the Dalmatian coast, Genoa became the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. ~~~ Albert of Habsburg defeated Adolph of Nassau, King of Germany, and was then himself elected King of Germany. ~~~ King Edward I of England reconquered Scotland. William Wallace, leader of the independence movement, found exile in France. ~~~ King Eric VI Menved ("Man's word") of Denmark quarreled with archbishop Johan Grand. In retaliation, the pope excommunicated the entire Kingdom of Denmark with a so-called interdict. The punishment was lifted in 1303.
1299
King Philip IV The Fair of France and the Flemings signed the peace treaty of Montreuil. With Albert of Habsburg, king of Germany, King Philip formed an alliance directed against Pope Boniface VIII.
The Florentine poet, Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy, was elected Prior of the city. Florence was divided by civil strife between the "Blacks" and the "Whites," and the leaders of both factions were exiled from the city. ~~~ King Wenceslas II of Bohemia was also elected king of Poland. His rule would last only five years.
1301
After the king of Hungary, who had no heirs, had died, the Arpad dynasty became extinct. King Wenceslas II of Bohemia then usurped the Hungarian throne, causing a bitter war of succession with some serious and powerful rivals, such as Otto von Wittelsbach and Charles of Anjou. ~~~ Pope Boniface VIII sent Charles of Valois to Florence in order to mediate in the civil war between the "Blacks" and the "Whites." Together with other "White" leaders, Dante Alighieri was exiled from Florence. ~~~ In the Battle of Baphaeon in Anatolia, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks commanded by Osman Ghazi.
1302
The Peace treaty of Caltabellotta ended the war between the dynasties of Anjou and Aragon over control over the Kingdom of Sicily. The parties agreed to divide the kingdom: Frederick of Aragon was recognized as king of Sicily, while the mainland, also known as the Kingdom of Naples, was awarded to the Anjou family. ~~~ Pope Boniface issued the bull "Unam Sanctam," claiming the superiority and precedence of papal over worldly authority. ~~~ In the Battle of Courtrai (Kortrijk) in Flanders, a strong French army chiefly composed of heavily armed cavalry (knights) was smashed by a Flemish army of townsmen and farmers fighting on foot.
1303
King Philip IV "the Fair" of France ordered the imprisonment of Pope Boniface VIII in Anagni. The influential Roman Colonna family aided the King. After a popular rebellion had forced the liberation of the pope, he returned to Rome, but died soon afterward.
1304
King Philip IV "the Fair" of France was constrained to recognize the de facto independence of Flanders, which technically and legally was a French domain. ~~~ The Byzantine Emperor engaged units of Catalan mercenaries who were deployed in the Aragonese possessions on mainland Greece. Yet these hardened professionals could not prevent the Turks of Mentese from occupying Ephesus.
1305
Clemens V, archbishop of Marseilles, was elected pope after the death of Boniface. The new pope remained in France, fearing to expose himself to the whims of the powerful clans ruling the city of Rome and because he did not want to be at the mercy of the Roman popular classes. ~~~ Wenceslas III became king of Bohemia.
1306
The Scottish nobles and townsmen proclaimed Robert Bruce as King Robert I of Scotland. The new king immediately renewed the struggle against the English who were occupying the country. ~~~ King Philip IV "the Fair" of France evicted all the Jews from his kingdom and confiscated their possessions. ~~~ After King Wenceslas III of Bohemia had been assassinated, the dynasty of the Przemyslids became extinct.
1307
King Philip IV The Fair of France ordered the arrest of the Knights Templar in the realm and the confiscation of their possessions. ~~~ The Castilian Cortes (parliament) acquired the privilege of approving new taxes. ~~~ King Edward I of England died and was succeeded by his son, Edward II.
1308
Albert I of Habsburg, king of Germany was assassinated. He was succeeded by Henry VII, count of Luxemburg. ~~~ The Teutonic, or German, Knights conquered Danzig and Pomerania. ~~~ Charles Robert of Anjou became king of Hungary after a long war of succession against the two other pretenders, Wenceslas III Przemysl, king of Bohemia (assassinated in 1306) and Otto von Wittelsbach. King Charles set out to strengthen the central administration at the expense of the landed nobility. ~~~ The Byzantine city of Pyrgion in Asia Minor (present-day Birgi) was conquered by the Turks of Aydin. Death of Mesud II, the last Seljuk sultan.
1309
Pope Clemens V established the Papal court at Avignon. Until 1377, this became the center of the Roman Catholic Church. ~~~ German king Henry VII of Luxemburg recognized the autonomous existence of the Swiss confederation, but insisted on formally maintaining the ties with the Empire. ~~~ Robert of Anjou became king of Naples. As head of the Guelf party, with ramifications throughout the Italian peninsula, King Robert became one of most powerful men in Italy. His court at Naples became a splendid center of culture thanks to the presence of numerous famous artists and writers.
German king Henry VII embarked upon a voyage to Italy in order to have himself crowned emperor and to restore imperial authority. Four years after the death of King Wenceslas III of Bohemia, his domains (Bohemia and Moravia) were given away as a dowry to Prince John, the son of King Henry VII. ~~~ After their expulsion from the Holy Land, the Knights of Saint John established themselves on the Island of Rhodes, from where they undertook raids on shipping from Islamic areas. ~~~ Basarab I established an autonomous realm in Moldavia, part of present-day Romania. Basarab's rule lasted until 1352.
1311
The Catalan mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine Empire conquered the County of Athens and made it a vassal to the Crown of Aragon. ~~~ Cangrande della Scala became lord of Verona (ruling until 1329) and initiated an ambitious great power policy in Italy. Cangrande invited Dante Alighieri to his court, Italy's most illustrious poet who had been exiled from his native Florence.
1312
Pope Clemens V dissolved the order of the Knights Templar after accusing them officially of heresy. The French crown confirmed the annexation of their extensive landed domains in the kingdom. ~~~ After his coronation as Emperor in Rome, Henry VII formed an alliance with King Frederick of Sicily, directed against Robert of Anjou, king of Naples.
1313
After the unexpected death of Emperor Henry VII (at the age of 38) at Buonconvento near Siena, while mounting an armed expedition against the king of Naples, his enemy took advantage of the opportunity to extend his influence over Middle and Northern Italy. ~~~ The Turks conquered Magnesia (present-day Manisa) in Asia Minor. ~~~ Civil war broke out in the Byzantine Empire.
1314
King Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated the English army in the Battle of Bannockburn and consolidated Scottish independence. ~~~ After the death of Emperor Henry VII, the German nobles failed to agree on a successor. There were two candidates, each having himself proclaimed king of Germany: Louis II of Bavaria and Frederick "the Fair" of Habsburg. The ensuing civil war kept Germany divided for eight years.
1315
Hertog Leopold I van Oostenrijk werd door de Zwitsers verslagen in de Slag bij Morgarten. Edward Bruce, de Duke Leopold I of Austria was defeated by the Swiss in the Battle of Morgarten. ~~~ Edward Bruce, brother of King Robert Bruce of Scotland, conquered Ireland and was crowned King of Ireland. ~~~ Gediminas became grand duke of Lithuania (ruling until 1341) and greatly extended the realm. Vilnius became the capital.
1316
After the death of King Louis X of France, Philip V "The Tall" was appointed regent. ~~~ John XXII was elected pope.
1317
Philip V "the Tall," regent of France, had himself crowned king. ~~~ Pope John XXII excommunicated the Visconti family of Milan and dispatched the French warlord Bertrand du Pouget to punish the city. The pope also proclaimed himself imperial regent in Italy.
1318
In England, the rebellion led by Thomas of Leicester was suppressed. Hugh Despenser became the new favorite of King Edward II of England.
1319
Magnus Ericsson was elected king of Sweden, at the same time inheriting the throne of Norway. ~~~ The Castilian army suffered a serious defeat by the Muslims in the Battle of Granada. ~~~ With the help from the Kingdom of Naples, Genoa was able to withstand an attack led by the Visconti's of Milan.
Pope John XXII granted Ladislas Lokietek ("the Short") permission to call himself king and to have himself crowned king of Poland. Ladislas made Krakow his capital after he had united the entire country and subjected it to his authority.
1321
The English Barons forced Hugh Despenser, favorite of King Edward II, into exile. ~~~ Death of King Milyutin of Serbia.
1322
Louis II of Bavaria, claiming the German throne, formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons. With their assistance, he defeated his rival Frederick "the Fair" of Habsburg in the Battle of Mühldorf. ~~~ Taking advantage from the reticence of Venetians and Genoese (who were heeding a papal appeal not to trade with the Egyptian Mamelukes), Catalan merchants from Barcelona strengthened their position in Alexandria.
1323
Prince Alfonso of Aragon, son of King James II, conquered Sardinia and turned it into an Aragonese province.
1324
Pope John XXII excommunicated Louis II of Bavaria and declared him deposed as king of Germany.
1325
In the Battle of Altopascio the Tuscan Guelfs were defeated by Castruccio Castracani, Lord of Lucca and Pistoia and leader of the Tuscan Ghibellines. ~~~ Ivan I became grand prince of Moscow. Moscow became the political center of Russia.
1326
Moscow replaced Kiev as the seat of the Russian Patriarchate, the highest authority of the Russian Orthodox Church. ~~~ The Ottoman Turks conquered Bursa. Their leader Osman Ghazi died and was succeeded by Orhan.
1327
Louis II of Bavaria was crowned King of Italy in Milan. ~~~ Edward III became King of England.
1328
The population of Rome crowned Louis II of Bavaria Roman Emperor and declared Pope John XXII deposed. ~~~ With the death of King Charles VI of France, the royal dynasty of the Capetians became extinct. By force of the Salic Law, allowing only masculine succession, Philip VI of Valois became king of France. King Edward III of England disputed the succession and claimed the French throne on the grounds that he was a closer relative of the deceased Capetian king, though along the female line. ~~~ Luigi I Gonzaga became ruler (Captain General) of Mantua, ending the city's civilian autonomy and founding the Gonzaga dynasty. Luigi's rule ended in 1360.
1329
A coalition of the Visconti dynasty of Milan and the D'Este dynasty of Ferrara, forced Louis II of Bavaria to withdraw to Germany and abandon his involvement in Italian politics. ~~~ King Edward III of England paid homage to King Philip VI of France for the Guyenne region (by paying homage, a vassal formally acknowledged the overlord's sovereignty over the lands he ruled). ~~~ The Byzantines retook the Island of Chios from the Genoese.
Following an agreement with Pope John XXII, John of Luxemburg, King of Bohemia and son of Emperor Henry VII, ordered the military occupation of part of Northern Italy. ~~~ The Battle of Küstendil, where the Bulgarian army was defeated, resulted in the end of Bulgarian autonomy, which was now annexed by Serbia. ~~~ The army of Basarab I, ruler of Walachia (part of present-day Romania), defeated the Hungarians in the Battle of Posada.
1331
Stephen Dusan became King of Serbia. Under his rule (until 1355), Serbia became a big power, and conquered numerous adjoining areas. Eventually, Serbia extended from the Danube River to the Aegean Sea. ~~~ The prince of Moscow was granted permission by the Mongols to style himself great prince. The title confirmed the position of Moscow as the premier state of present-day Russia. On the other hand, the ruler of Moscow implicitly recognized the superior authority of the Mongols. ~~~ The Ottoman Turks (taking their name from their deceased leader Osman Ghazi), conquered the city of Nicaea (present-day Iznik in Turkey).
1332
Italy witnessed the formation of a broad coalition against John of Luxemburg, King of Bohemia. ~~~ Sweden annexed The region of Skane, on the southernmost tip of the Scandinavian peninsula. Until that moment the region had been a part of Denmark. ~~~ Umur, Bey (governor) of Izmir (Smyrna) led the first campaign of the Ottoman Turks into the Balkans.
1333
John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia had to withdraw his troops from Northern Italy when he was confronted by the united opposition from Guelf and Ghibelline towns. ~~~ Casimir III "the Great" was elected king of Poland. During his reign (until 1370), Poland entered upon a period of unprecedented cultural and political achievements. ~~~ The Ottoman Turks, under the command of their leader Orhan, defeated a Byzantine army under Emperor Andronicus III in the Battle of Pelekanon (in Asia Minor).
1334
Stephen Dusan conquered Western Macedonia and concluded a cease-fire with Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III. ~~~ King Edward III of England decreed general conscription. ~~~ Pope John XXII was assassinated by a group of conspirators led by Napoleone Orsini. Benedict XII was elected as the new pope. ~~~ King Casimir III "The Great" of Poland fostered urban trade and industry by granting privileges to the sizeable Jewish community.
1335
John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, initiated a campaign for the conquest of Silesia.
1336
A trade war broke out between England and Flanders. ~~~ The Byzantines conquered the Island of Lesbos from the Genoese. ~~~ King Peter ascended the throne of Aragon.
1337
King Philip VI of France annexed Gascoigne, the Southwestern region of France that was the property of King Edward III of England. In retaliation, King Edward proclaimed himself king of France, thus setting off the Hundred Years' War. ~~~ The Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine city of Nicomedia (present-day Izmit), near the capital of Constantinople.
1338
At the imperial Diet of Rhense, the German nobles decided that the elected King of Germany no longer needed confirmation of his dignity by the pope and did not need to undergo papal coronation in order to be called emperor.
1339
A popular and artisan revolt against the aristocratic administration of Genoa established an eternal doganate (after the title of Doge, meaning leader, or duke, from the Latin word "dux"). Simon Boccanegra became the first Doge. The Milanese Visconti dynasty consolidated its hold on the municipal administration of the city and spread its authority across a great part of Northern Italy. With the conquest of the city of Treviso, Venice initiated its continental territorial expansion.
In the naval Battle of Sluys, (l'Ecluse), the English fleet defeated the French navy, and established a superiority in the "English" Channel. ~~~ In the Battle of Salado, near Gibraltar, King Alfonso XI of Castile defeated a Muslim army that had received reinforcements of Moroccan troops from North Africa. ~~~ King Waldemar IV ascended the Danish throne, his reign lasting until 1375.
1341
King Philip VI of France made Charles of Blois duke of Brittany. Philip made his peace with Emperor Louis II of Bavaria. ~~~ Charles of Luxemburg became regent of Bohemia. ~~~ After the death of grand duke Gediminas (who had been reigning since 1316), Algirdas succeeded him. His reign lasted until 1377. ~~~ A civil war broke out in the Byzantine Empire, and was not ended until 1347.
1342
Gualtieri di Brienne, nicknamed the duke of Athens, usurped the municipal administration of Florence. ~~~ Louis (Lajos) of Anjou became king of Hungary, reigning until 1382.
1343
A popular rebellion in Florence put an end to the regime of Gualtieri di Brienne and chased him out of town. Amadeus VI, "the Green Count," became duke of Savoy and greatly increased the power and influence of his duchy. This brought him into conflict with the Milanese Visconti dynasty and with the House of Anjou that ruled the Kingdom of Naples. However, the death of King Robert of Anjou plunged the realm into a long and deep crisis. ~~~ After his landing in Normandy King Edward III of England began an advance on Paris that was barred by King Philip VI of France. ~~~ The Peace treaty of Kalisz ended the long war between King Casimir III of Poland and the German, or Teutonic Knights. ~~~ King Stephen Dusan of Serbia conquered Albania. ~~~ The Genoese took the city of Caffa on the Crimea peninsula. ~~~ Norway and Sweden were administratively separated. They had been administrated jointly since 1319 when Magnus Ericsson became king of Sweden and Norway.
1344
The Holy Union conquered Smyrna from the Ottoman Turks and defeated the Ottoman fleet near the Island of Imbros.
1345
King Edward III of England refused to pay the debts he had incurred with the Florentine banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi, causing the bankruptcy of these two banks. ~~~ Grand duke Algirdas came to power in Lithuania. During his reign, Lithuania expanded greatly, eventually reaching the Black Sea.
1346
In the Battle of Crécy the heavy French cavalry were defeated by the English archers. ~~~ King Stephen Dusan proclaimed himself "Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks," choosing the name of Urus IV. ~~~ The Genoese conquered the Island of Chios and thus acquired an important naval base in the Aegean Sea, which until then had been the exclusive domain of their arch rivals, the Venetians. ~~~ Denmark sold its remaining possessions in Estonia to the German Knights.
1347
English troops occupied Calais, which for the next few centuries would remain an English possession. ~~~ Charles IV of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, was elected Emperor of Germany after his allies had deposed Louis IV of Bavaria. ~~~ King Louis (Lajos) of Hungary, member of the House of Anjou and related to the ruling family in the Kingdom of Naples, began his first Neapolitan campaign. ~~~ The bubonic plague erupted in the Genoese trading posts of Tana (at the mouth of the River Don) and Caffa (on the Crimea). This terrible disease, against which few people proved resistant, was spread by fleas through black rats. The plague probably originated among Ukrainian squirrels that were hunted because of their skins. Once the plague had infected rats living among humans in improperly cleaned houses, its further spread could hardly be stopped. Merchant ships brought the disease to all important port cities, from where it rapidly moved inland. In 1347 the plague reached Constantinople, Messina, Venice and Genoa and thence spread across Italy. Eventually all of Europe was affected, with probably up to one third of the population dying from its effects.
1348
King Edward III of England created the Royal order of the Garter, one of the most illustrious of English societies. Membership was exclusively reserved for the most important and most deserving individuals in the realm. ~~~ The bubonic plague spread from Italy to Spain, France, England and Southern Germany.
1349
King Casimir III "the Great" of Poland conquered Galicia and Wolhynia. ~~~ Giovanni Visconti became Lord of Milan, ruling until 1354. ~~~ The bubonic plague spread across England, Germany and Norway.
John II "the Good" became king of France after the death of his father, King Philip VI. ~~~ King Alfonso XI of Castile died and was succeeded by his son, Peter "the Cruel." ~~~ Beginning of the war between Genoa and Venice. ~~~ Stephen Dusan (Urus IV) of Serbia successfully repulsed a Byzantine attack on his kingdom. ~~~ The bubonic plague spread across Sweden and Northern Germany.
1351
Winrich von Kniprode became Grand Master of the Teutonic, or German Knights. Under his leadership (until 1382), the order reached the zenith of its power and influence.
1352
After the death of Pope Clemens VI, the cardinals tried to usurp all power in the Church but the newly elected pope, Innocent VI was able to block this effort. ~~~ Stephen Dusan (Urus IV) of Serbia was defeated by the Ottoman Turks under Orhan in the Battle of Demotika.
1353
The Swiss cantons made an alliance with Bern. ~~~ The Ottomans began their settlement of the Gallipoli peninsula near Constantinople.
1354
King Charles IV of Germany traveled to Italy with the purpose of having himself crowned emperor. A new League of Lombardy was formed in order to fight German political influence in Italy.
1355
King Charles IV of Germany was crowned emperor, but his political designs were foiled by the Bohemian nobles. ~~~ Stephen Dusan (Urus IV) of Serbia died and was succeeded by Urus V, who reigned until 1371.
1356
Led by the "Black Prince," the English army defeated the French in the Battle of Poitiers. ~~~ In their war against Venice, the Hungarians conquered Dalmatia.
1357
Charles "the Bad," whom King John "the Good" of France had thrown in prison the previous year, was set free. In the North of the Provence, the local population murdered two papal inquisitors.
1358
A popular revolt took place in Paris. The movement was directed against the French Crown Prince (dauphin) and led by Etienne Marcel. Marcel allied himself with the peasants who had risen in rebellion and let them enter Paris after Charles the Bad had smashed them. Then the Parisians turned against Marcel and killed him. ~~~ The Dalmatian port of Ragusa (Dubrovnik), a Venetian colony since over 150 years, was brought under Hungarian rule.
1359
With the peace treaty of London, King Edward III of England received back his ancestor Henry II's French possessions. The French estates in the regions concerned rejected this clause. In November, Edward invaded the North of France, Burgundy and Champagne.
1360