1945

On May 8, Admiral Karl Dönitz (1891-1980) signed the German surrender to the Soviet Union. The day before, Germany had surrendered unconditionally to the United States and Great Britain. Thus, the Second World War in Europe was ended. It had begun on September 1, 1939, when Germany attacked Poland. Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the National Socialist Führer (leader) who started the war had committed suicide in Berlin on April 30. Some 3.5 million German soldiers and 0.8 million civilians had lost their lives. The physical damage Germany had brought upon itself was enormous. The economy was wrecked, all big cities were in ruins, the railroad system was heavily destroyed and public life had come almost to a standstill.~~~ At the Yalta Conference, the political leaders of the three allied powers, Winston Churchill (1874-1965, Great Britain), Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945, U.S.) and Joseph Stalin (1879-1953, Soviet Union), had reached an agreement for the political reconstruction of Europe. Germany was reduced to its borders of December 31, 1937, and divided into four occupation zones, one of which was assigned to France as a fourth allied power (June 5). The capital city of Berlin was also divided into four occupation sectors. Germany was now under the administration of the commanders of four occupation armies, General Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969, U.S.), Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976, Great Britain), and marshals Jean de Lattre de Tassigny (1890-1952, France) and Georgiy Zhukov (1896-1974, Soviet Union). At the Potsdam conference, the allied government leaders (July 17-August 2) decided to help the German people with the construction of a democratic political system. On August 30, the Allied Control Council was created as the highest administrative authority in Germany. Meanwhile, political life slowly began to recover. New administrative units were set up in the American zone of occupation: the Länder of Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg and Hessen. In the first days of September, Kurt Schumacher (1895-1952), leader of the SPD (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, German Social Democratic Party), organized a big congress in Hannover. The Christian Democratic parties CDU (Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands, German Christian Democratic Union) and CSU (Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern, Christian Social Union of Bavaria) were founded.

1946

Local elections were organized under the auspices of the occupation forces. These elections were to be the basis for Germany's eventual political reconstruction. In Nuremberg, the highest authorities and responsible politicians and officials of the NSDAP, the National Socialist German Workers' Party, were put on trial. The charges included genocide and crimes against humanity. However, most of those who were directly or indirectly guilty of the murder of almost six million Jews, Gypsies and other groups the Nazis considered inferior, were never punished. Tens of thousands of them had fled abroad, many receiving assistance from the OSS, the American intelligence service and from the Vatican. Many scientists and technicians were hired by the U.S., Great Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Others went to work for South American governments or in Spain, Egypt and Syria. Thousands of SS soldiers, a Nazi elite corps, joined the French Foreign Legion and were sent to Viet Nam to uphold French colonial rule. Many of the more than 20,000 Dutch SS volunteers were pardoned when they joined the Dutch army to fight against the nationalist movement in Indonesia. Meanwhile, the denazification campaign was carried on vigorously in Germany itself. In the British occupation zone, some 300,000 persons were liable for dismissal and some 400,000 in the Soviet zone. However, in the British and American zones, procedure often stranded in red tape. In the Soviet zone, denazification was used to put Communists in key positions (army, legal system, police and education). On the whole, denazification was mitigated by pragmatism.~~~ On March 28, the Allied Control Council declared that German industry was to be dismantled. According to the "Level of Industry Plan," the capacity of the steel and machine tool industries were to be curbed. In the British zone, the Länder of Hamburg, North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony were created. The French created Rhineland Pfalz in their zone.~~~ In April, under strong pressure from the Soviet Union, the Ost-Abteilung (Eastern division) of the SPD merged with the KPD (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, German Communist Party) to form the SED (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, Socialist Union Party of Germany). A youth movement, the FDJ ("efday yacht", Freie Deutsche Jugend, Free German Youth) was founded under the leadership of Erich Honecker (1912-1994) and Hermann Axen (1916-1992). Before long, the FDJ was brought under Communist control.

1947

On January 1, 1947, the British and American zones were economically joined to form "Bizonia". The Allied Control Council decided to dissolve the state of Prussia, which in the eyes of many was the cause of everything that seemed wrong with Germany. Only pre-war Bavaria, Hamburg and Bremen were largely left intact. The other pre-war states and provinces were eliminated. Most new Länder that were created combined sections of old and traditional territories. In the Soviet zone, five Länder were created, eventually to be abolished in 1951. The GDR was then divided into 14 Bezirke. In the British zone, the DGB (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund, German Trade Union Federation) was founded, the general union of workers. It was increasingly apparent that two different societies were beginning to take shape in Germany. On the one hand the three Western zones, which were administered in accordance with like-minded economic and political ideas. On the other hand there was the Soviet zone, which was more and more brought under the influence of Soviet administrative and economic values. However, Soviet norms had a certain similarity with those of the Nazis. In the summer, the economic council of the British and American zones met at Frankfurt (June 25). Elected by the various Länder, this council was a kind of federal government of Bizonia.

1948

The Bank Deutscher Länder (Bank of the German Länder, the precursor of the Bundesbank) was founded on June 18. The deutsche mark, (German mark), a new currency equivalent to ten reichsmarks, was introduced in the three Western occupation zones. The USSR strongly protested against what it considered to be a Western attempt to extend its economic control over the Eastern part of Germany. Reacting to mounting tension with the three Western powers (U.S., Britain, France), the Soviets blockaded West Berlin (June 24), hoping to bring the entire city under their control. The Western allies then organized the "Berlin Airlift" to ensure a steady supply of food, fuel and clothing for the embattled Berliners.~~~ In July the three Western allies, together with German politicians, decided to complete the process of political reorganization in the West. In September, the "Parliamentary Council" began drafting a new constitution. The division of Germany into two separate states now seemed inevitable. As a matter of fact, France and Britain rather welcomed such a division, since they feared a united Germany. The U.S. and the USSR had no objections against a unified Germany, provided it would be in their own sphere of influence and subservient to their own diplomatic and economic policies. The opinions and wishes of the German people did not yet count. The division of Germany was also influenced by the Communist takeover of neighboring Czechoslovakia, which took place step by step in the first months of the year.

1949

FRG In April the French occupation zone joined Bizonia, the economic and administrative union of the British and American zones, which was thus transformed into Trizonia. On May 23, the "Federal Republic of Germany" was proclaimed in the three Western zones, with Bonn its capital. The country had 47.7 million inhabitants and an area of 96,000 sq. miles. The federal court, the Bundesverfassungsgericht, was established in Karlsruhe. Berlin (3.3 million inhabitants) retained a separate status. At the general elections of August 14, the CDU/CSU won 31% of the vote, the SPD 29.2%, the liberal FDP (Freie Demokratische Partei, Free Democratic Party) 11.9% and the Communist KPD 5.7%. The Christian Democrats received 139 of the 402 seats in the Bundestag, the federal parliament. The Socialists won 131 seats and the Liberals 52. The liberal politician Theodor Heuss (1884-1963) became the first president. The Christian Democrat Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) became Chancellor, heading a coalition government of Christian Democrats and Liberals.~~~ By a treaty signed on December 15, the Federal Republic was allowed to receive Marshall aid funds earmarked for the reconstruction of Western Europe. With a GNP of $15.3 billion, the West German economy was considerably smaller than those of France ($20 billion) and Great Britain ($39 billion). Even the Netherlands ($5 billion) had a relatively bigger economy.

GDR At the first party congress of the SED it was decided to transform the party according to the model of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (January 28). The leading party principles would be "democratic centralism" (another word for party dictatorship) and the class struggle. On March 19, the Deutscher Volksrat (German Popular Council, a non-elected provisional parliament) approved and voted the creation of a "German Democratic Republic" within the boundaries of the Soviet occupation zone. The GDR had 17.3 million inhabitants and an area of 42,000 sq. miles. The new state was officially proclaimed on October 7. The SED had a majority in the Volkskammer, the East German parliament. The East German Länder were represented in a Länderkammer. Wilhelm Pieck (1876-1960) was elected president of the GDR. Otto Grotewohl (1894-1964) headed a cabinet composed of SED members and members of the East German CDU, the LDPD (Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands, German Liberal Democratic Party), the NDPD (National-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands, German National Democratic Party) and the DBD (Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands, German Democratic Farmers' Party). However, these parties had no real influence in the people's democracy. Voters could only cast their ballot for the candidates on the Einheitsliste, the unitary list drawn up by the SED.

1950

FRG In March, the Bundestag voted legislation encouraging business to reinvest profits. As a result the economy, which had already begun to recover, received a powerful boost. The new legislation became one of the cornerstones of reconstruction. At a conference in Hattenheim near Frankfurt, employers and unions discussed the participation of workers in management (Mitbestimmungsrecht).~~~ In August the federal government announced its intention to create an armed force as a counterweight against the Volkspolizei, the army that the GDR had recently formed.~~~ Otto Diels (1876-1954) and Kurt Alder (1902-1958), a professor at Cologne, received the Nobel Prize for chemistry.

GDR At the 3rd SED Party Conference in July, the delegates voted the creation of a Central Committee as the highest party authority. Soviet practice provided the example. Walter Ulbricht (1893-1973) was elected to the new post of General Secretary of the Central Committee and thus confirmed his position as the most powerful man of the GDR. Wilhelm Zaisser (1893-1958), a veteran of the Spanish Civil War, was appointed head of the new Ministry of State Security (MfS).~~~ On September 29, the GDR joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON or RGW), the Soviet answer to the Marshall Plan. All Eastern Block states joined COMECON, with each member state specializing in the production of certain goods and services. The GDR concentrated on the production of high quality technology. At the Volkskammer elections, the official candidates received 99.3% of all yes votes.~~~ On July 22 the government accused the U.S. of economic sabotage by dropping Colorado beetles over East German fields.

1951

FRG The federal government decreed limits for food prices (flour, milk, and meat), thus stabilizing the cost of living and improving the international competitiveness of West German industry. With other laws, the government fomented exports. The neonazi SRP (Reichspartei, or Reich Party), won almost 400,000 votes in the regional elections in Lower Saxony and became the fourth largest party in that region.~~~ On July 9 the three Western occupation powers officially ended the war with Germany. The Netherlands was the first Western European power willing to open diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic.~~~ With the creation of the Bundesgrenzschutz, the Federal Border Guard of about 10,000 men, the Federal Republic acquired its own armed force. Border guards were restricted to patrolling up to 10 miles from the border. The Federal government still needed to pay about 25% of its budget to the U.S., Great Britain and France for maintaining the occupation forces.

GDR At the 4th SED Party Congress, President Wilhelm Pieck announced a purge of Titoists (party members who sympathized with Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito's brand of communism).~~~ The gap in living standards with those of the FRG was becoming painfully apparent. Though food rationing was ended in October, certain items, such as meat, sugar and fats (butter, margarine and cooking oil) could still only be obtained with special coupons.

1952

FRG With the signing on May 26 by the Western allies of the so-called Bonn Convention, the Federal Republic became almost fully sovereign. However, almost two months prior to the signing, the "Stalin proposal" brought the West in disarray. The Soviet leader proposed a definitive solution of the German question by means of a peace treaty. Most Western politicians distrusted the proposal. Chancellor Adenauer rejected it but the SPD was in favor of thoroughly exploring Moscow's proposal.~~~ The FRG joined the ECSC, the European Coal and Steel Community, generally known in German as the Montanunion. The other member states were the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, France and Italy. The ECSC created a common market for coal and steel and gave a strong boost to the West German mining and steel industries. Great Britain returned the island of Helgoland. The status of the Saarland, an important center for the production of coal and steel, remained a problem. The region had been put under French administration. The FRG promised to pay 3 billion deutsche mark in reparations (Wiedergutmachung) to Israel over a period of 12 years.~~~ SS veterans held a convention at Verden under the presidency of former SS General Herbert Gille (1897-1966). Gille had been commander of the "Viking" division and said the SS were "idealists and pioneers of the idea of Europe." After the death of Kurt Schumacher, the popular leader of the SPD, Erich Ollenhauer (1901-1963) succeeded him at the head of the party. On 19 July, the Bundestag adopted the "Betriebsverfassungsgesetz", the company management bill, which made it obligatory for firms with more than 5 employees to install a company council. One third of board members were to be employees.~~~ The first television broadcasts took place. Axel Springer (1912-1985) founded the sensationalist newspaper Bild, which would soon become West Germany's biggest daily.

GDR At the end of April, the Soviet Union returned a number of confiscated firms to the GDR. These firms were immediately transformed into VEB's, (Volkseigene Betriebe, firms owned by the people). The first steps were made in the collectivization of agriculture after the Soviet example. Two kinds of farms were created: the VEG's (Volkseigene Güter, agricultural estates owned by the people), the equivalent of sovkhozes (state farms) and the LPG's (Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften, agricultural production communities) , the equivalent of kolkhozes (collective farms).~~~ In April the SED announced the purge of 150,000 party members. In May patrols along the line of demarcation with the Federal Republic were intensified. Many border areas were declared off limits and direct contacts between local residents and West Germans just across the border were prohibited. The objective of these measures was to prevent the flight to the West of farmers who opposed agricultural collectivization.

1953

FRG The Bundestag elections of September 6 ended in a big victory for the Christian Democrats: the CDU/CSU received 45.2% of the vote. The SPD received 28.8% and the FDP 9.5%. The CDU/CSU won 244 of 487 seats, the SPD 150 and the FDP 48. New to parliament was the Refugee Party, with 5.9% of the vote and 27 seats.~~~ The London debt treaty settled Germany's outstanding debts, including pre-war debts incurred through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan (totaling 13.3 billion deutsche mark) and the post-war debt (6.8 billion deutsche mark), which had been increasing rapidly.~~~ Hermann Staudinger (1881-1965), a professor at Freiburg University since 1926, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

GDR Protesting a recent increase in labor norms, construction workers in (East) Berlin went on strike on June 16. The following day, workers in Erfurt, Halle, Magdeburg and many other towns and villages joined the movement. Big strikes were taking place all over the country. In previous months, popular discontent in the GDR with SED policies had become so serious that the party felt obliged to promise a greater choice and variety of food and a greater degree of legal security. Popular unrest was heightened by the death of Joseph Stalin (March 5), which seemed to end the harsh repression in the Soviet Union. The close ties with the Soviet Union and the other states of the Eastern Block caused the GDR to be strongly influenced by events in these countries. There was precious little sympathy for the GDR. All of Central and Eastern Europe had greatly suffered during World War II. Therefore, the complaints of East German workers were hardly taken seriously. Yet as a result the SED had lost control of the country. The commander of the Soviet troops of occupation therefore temporarily took over the government and used force to restore order. Red Army tanks and soldiers thus crushed a movement that had become a popular rebellion against the Soviets. Immediately afterward, the authorities attempted to solve the crisis. Four days after the restoration of order, the SED Central Committee lowered labor norms. On July 15, state security minister Wilhelm Zaisser was replaced with Ernst Wollweber (1898-1967). In August, Otto Grotewohl traveled to Moscow to give explanations and to ask for help. The Soviet leadership promised not to request the payment of any outstanding debts and to receive less money for its occupation troops.~~~ In honor of Karl Marx (1818-1883), the German founder of Communism, the industrial town of Chemnitz was renamed "Karl-Marx-Stadt" (Karl Marx City) on May 12, the day on which he was born.

1954

FRG With the signing in London and Paris by the Western powers and West Germany of the "Paris Accords," the integration of the FRG in the Western community was given a thorough framework. The Federal Republic promised to join a number of international organizations. Thus, the path was cleared for rearmament as well. However, domestic opposition against an independent defense force was gaining strength as a result. The SPD was not in favor of a West German defense force, but the DGB, the biggest trade union (6 million members) was strongly opposed. On July 23, Otto John (1909-1997), chief of the Verfassungsschutz, (national security service), defected to the GDR. John felt that former Nazis were being too much protected in the Federal Republic.~~~ The German national soccer team won the World Championship in Switzerland. The team consisted of players from both the FRG and the GDR. The German public was overjoyed. Walter Bothe (1891-1957) received the Nobel Prize for Physics.

GDR On March 25 the Soviet government declared that the GDR was a sovereign state. At the SED's 4th Party Congress (March 30-April 4) it became clear that the first hesitant steps on the path of "destalinization" were being made in the GDR, just as in the Soviet Union and the other Eastern Block countries. At the October 17 Volkskammer elections, the candidates of the "unitary lists" were elected with 99.46% of the vote.~~~ During the summer, Bertolt Brecht (1898-1954) died. Brecht had been the most important German playwright of his generation. His residence in the GDR gave the regime a certain intellectual and cultural prestige, and his example induced quite a number of artists and intellectuals to prefer the GDR over the FRG.

1955

FRG The Federal Republic was declared a sovereign state on May 5. However, this sovereignty was a limited one. The Western allies retained a veto on a possible reunification with the GDR. The allied High Commission was abolished. The basis for the Bonn government's foreign policy was the "Hallstein Doctrine," which stipulated that diplomatic relations could only be maintained with countries that did not recognize the GDR in any way whatsoever.~~~ After the failure to create a European army (the European Defense Community, or EDC, which was vetoed by the French National Assembly), the Federal Republic was admitted as a member of NATO, the U.S.-led military alliance founded in 1949 to block the advance of Communism. Thus, the last remaining hurdle for German rearmament had been eliminated. Although the Bundeswehr soon received modern weapons from the U.S. and was equipped and organized in U.S. fashion, the German arms industry was given new opportunities as well. Orders were placed with the Düsseldorf firm of Rheinmetall, a producer of small arms and guns and the Munich tank maker Kraus-Maffei. Some believed German rearmament was the first step on a fateful path that would certainly end with another German attempt at continental hegemony. However, the soldiers of the new Bundeswehr were treated as "uniformed civilians" meaning that the new German army in no way resembled the former Wehrmacht. The presence on German soil of hundreds of thousands of U.S. soldiers (in Bavaria and Hessen) was reassuring. It was felt to be enough of a safeguard against a possible German revanchist move. Still, there were fears, especially among workers, that rearmament would be too costly.~~~ In September (9-13), Chancellor Konrad Adenauer went to the Soviet Union on an official visit. The FRG and the USSR decided to open diplomatic relations. The Soviets promised to release the last remaining 10,000 German prisoners of war.~~~ The Schmeisser scandal, involving accusations against Adenauer and two aides of working for French intelligence, merely caused a ripple in politics.

GDR On September 20 the post of High Commissioner of the Soviet Union in the GDR was abolished. Instead, a treaty of mutual assistance was signed between the GDR and the USSR. The sovereignty of the GDR had thus become a reality. Otto Grotewohl paid an official visit to the People's Republic of China, signing a treaty of friendship and cooperation with the Chinese.~~~ In 1955 some 270,000 people fled from the GDR to West Germany, bringing the total over the preceding four years to about one million.

1956

FRG The federal government submitted a proposal to the Soviet Union for the reunification of the two Germanies after free elections. In exchange, Germany would be demilitarized but it should be free to choose its allies. The Soviets rejected the proposal, saying that reunification could only take place after negotiations between the two German states. The Soviets also demanded that the Federal Republic abandon its "warlike posture." On August 17 the Communist Party (KPD) was proscribed since its political goals were deemed to be in violation of the West German constitution. The FRG signed an agreement with France on the status of the Saarland. On January 1, 1957 the region would be returned to the Federal Republic but in exchange, France would over the next 25 years receive a total of 90 million tons of coal from the local mines. In 1960, the Saarland would be reunited economically with the Federal Republic.~~~ In July the Bundesbankwas founded, succeeding the Bank Deutscher Länder. The Bundesbank was given the authority to determine national monetary policy. The buildup of the Bundeswehr continued apace. In December there were already 65,000 men in the army. The decision to admit into the Bundeswehr former Waffen SS officers until the rank of colonel led to controversy.~~~ The Düsseldorf heart surgeon Werner Forssmann (1904-1979) was awarded a Nobel Prize for Medicine.

GDR On its 20th Party Congress, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union condemned Stalinism, ordering nationwide "destalinization." This process was officially termed the struggle against the "personality cult." The new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the party, Nikita Khrushchev (1884-1971), thus further strengthened his leadership. Walter Ulbricht felt insecure with the new turn of events and ordered a crackdown on any form of opposition. When in October, inspired by the revolt in Hungary, students at the Berlin Humboldt University began to protest against Ulbricht's policies, they found no support whatsoever. Most GDR residents still had vivid memories of the events of 1953. The Hungarian rebellion was partly inspired by the spectacular rehabilitation of Wladislaw Gomulka (1902-1985), the Polish Communist leader who had been thrown in prison. Encouraged by Gomulka's liberation, the people of Budapest rose in rebellion against the Communist regime. However, like the East German rebellion of 1953, the Hungarian revolt was violently crushed by the Red Army.~~~ On 18 January the Volkskammer voted the creation of a separate GDR army, the NVA (Nationale Volksarmee, National People's Army). Though the NVA was equipped with Russian weapons and materiel, its uniforms were traditionally German and hardly distinguishable from the wartime Wehrmacht. The GDR also joined the Warsaw Pact, founded in 1955 as a Communist answer to NATO.~~~ Almost 160,000 people fled from the GDR and settled in the Federal Republic.

1957

FRG Germany joined the European Economic Community (EEC) as a founding member, together with France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. The German Question was one of the main points on the agenda of a NATO conference in Paris. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer proposed to invite the Soviet Union to discuss a solution, but rejected negotiations with the GDR. The FRG broke off diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia because of its official recognition of the GDR. Thus the Federal Republic for the first time applied the Hallstein Doctrine which prohibited relations with states recognizing the GDR.~~~ On January 1 the Saarland officially became part of the Federal Republic. The SPD changed its course by declaring its support for a European security system. In the general elections (September 15), more than half the vote went to the CDU/CSU (50.2%). The SPD also received more votes than in 1953: 31.8%. The FDP stood at 7.7%. In the Bundestag, 270 seats went to the CDU/CSU, 169 to the Socialists, and 41 to the FDP. The new Bundestagdemonstratively held its first session in Berlin instead of in Bonn (October 16).

GDR In August Nikita Khrushchev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, was in the GDR on an official visit, emphasizing the close ties between the two countries.~~~ Walter Ulbricht, First Secretary of the SED Central Committee announced the party would try to work towards a federation between the two German states. This federation was to be governed by a council elected by proportional representation (February 1). The candidates of the "National Front" unitary list received 99.52% of the vote during the Volkskammer elections.~~~ The dissident intellectual Wolfgang Harich (1923-1995) was sentenced to 10 years of forced labor. His crime was high treason for having suggested more political openness for the SED regime. Harich had been arrested in 1956.~~~ Almost 270,000 people fled from the GDR to West Germany.~~~ The first nuclear power plant was inaugurated on December 16 in Rossendorf near Dresden.

1958

FRG Although the signing of a trade agreement with the Soviet Union (April 25) apparently improved relations between Bonn and Moscow, the problems seemed to increase due to political differences of opinion. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer had two meetings with the new French President, Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970). It was the beginning of a long and fruitful Franco-German cooperation.~~~ Defense Minister Franz-Josef Strauss (1915-1988) of the Bavarian CSU declared to be in favor of equipping the West German armed forces with nuclear weapons. All neighboring countries and the Soviet Union were shocked by Strauss' remarks. However, Adenauer supported his views. In March the Bundestag decided to accept nuclear weapons if requested by NATO. The DGB trade union and the SPD loudly protested these plans. Big demonstrations against nuclear armament were held all over the country. It was feared that German reunification would now forever be impossible. The British government promised not to reduce the 55,000 man Army of the Rhine before 1961. Thereafter, it would be brought down to 45,000 troops.~~~ The Soviet proposal to settle the Berlin question by making West Berlin a Free City created wild confusion. It was the beginning of the "Berlin Crisis."

GDR In February the State Planning Commission was created as a central organ of the GDR council of ministers. At the end of May food rationing was abolished altogether.~~~ At the 5th SED Party Congress it was decided to reduce the GDR's dependence on West German industry.~~~ In December the Länderkammer was abolished. Walter Ulbricht, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the SED declared that all of Berlin was part of the GDR (October 27). Ulbricht strengthened his position within the party by getting rid of some "anti-stalinist" rivals: the Politbureau members Karl Schirdewan (1907-1998) and Ernst Wollweber (1898-1967, ex-Minister of State Security) were evicted from the SED. Party ideologist Fred Oelssner (1903-1977) underwent the same fate (February).

1959

FRG The Federal government feared a possible change of British and American policy with respect to Germany. Bonn believed it was harmful for German interests if the U.S. and the Soviet Union would reach an agreement on the status of the two Germanies.~~~ The West German political establishment was up in arms when Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (inspired by the example of Charles de Gaulle in France) attempted to continue governing as federal president. This move would eliminate Ludwig Erhard (1897-1977), Adenauer's designated successor. Resistance from the CDU/CSU prevented Adenauer's plans. At a special party congress in Bad Godesberg the SPD resolved to adapt its political program. By eliminating Marxism from the program, the party would strive to achieve Democratic Socialism. Herbert Wehner (1906-1990) and Fritz Erler (1913-1967) engineered this change.~~~ The political class in the FRG lost prestige through a number of corruption scandals involving high civil servants and politicians.

GDR On June 3 the Volkskammer resolved to speed up agricultural collectivization. Farmers who had failed to join a collective farm (LPG) were now compelled by law to do so. The new law caused a massive flight of rural residents to the FRG through Berlin.~~~ In his book Obrigkeit, Lutheran Bishop Otto Dibelius (1880-1967) wrote that Christians did not have to obey the authorities of an atheist and anticlerical state. For some time, Dibelius had been one of the chief critics of the SED regime. However, the government did not dare arrest the bishop, fearing to cause a mass protest among the many Lutherans in the GDR and in view of Dibelius' international prestige. In 1954 the Bishop had been elected on the board of the World Council of Churches in Geneva. ~~~ In Dresden, the "Friedrich Engels" military academy was inaugurated. (January 5).

1960

FRG The U.S. government requested a greater financial contribution for maintaining the American troops in Germany. The Americans also wanted the Federal Republic to give more development aid. The Americans were irritated at the big West German export surpluses, which hurt their balance of payments. The Bonn government refused to accede to the American demands.~~~ In retaliation for the curbs on travel between East and West Berlin imposed by the GDR, the Federal Republic renounced the zone treaty. Alfred Frenzel (1894-1968), an SPD Bundestag member, was accused of spying for Czechoslovakia. This scandal did serious damage to the Socialists.~~~ In May agents of the Israeli secret service abducted Adolf Eichmann (1906-1962), in the Argentine capital Buenos Aires. Eichmann had coordinated the systematic murder of millions of Jews in the concentration camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau. After the Israelis had brought Eichmann to Israel for trial, he was sentenced to death and executed in 1962.~~~ The Volkswagen plant at Wolfsburg was incorporated with 40% Federal participation.

GDR The GDR government put curbs on travel between the two parts of Berlin in an effort to bring a halt to the depopulation of the countryside. Over the first six months of the year, more than 54,000 rural residents had fled to the West through Berlin. The total of refugees from the East since 1949 had reached almost 2 million.~~~ Walter Ulbricht further consolidated his position, becoming Chairman of the newly created State Council. The Council had been made the executive instead of the function of President (September 12) Ulbricht was also made Chairman of the National Defense Council (Nationale Verteidigungsrat, February 10).~~~ In November the Soviets promised increased supplies of goods and raw materials to the GDR to help fight economic problems.~~~ For the first time in German history, judges were appointed on the basis of popular elections. This was done at the regional level in the Bezirken (districts) and Kreisen in which the former Länder had been divided (October-November).

1961

FRG The CDU/CSU was reduced to 242 of 499 Bundestag seats after the elections of September 17. Only 45.4% of the vote went to the Christian Democrats. The SPD increased its share (36.2% and 190 seats) and so did the FDP (12.8% and 67 seats).~~~ In November, after his third reelection as Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer went to the U.S. on an official visit to discuss the Berlin Crisis and U.S. policy. The building of the Berlin Wall had proved the futility of Adenauer's Politik der Stärke (Policy of Strength). Adenauer had always expected the GDR to collapse. This mean that the Federal Republic needed to develop a new Ostpolitik (Eastward Policy) but this was done only some years afterward under Willy Brandt. The American administration reassured the Germans. In February, the West German government had promised to partly meet American demands for a greater share in financing U.S. troops stationed in West Germany. The revaluation of the deutsche mark made German exports more expensive and thus partly satisfied American demands for export curbs. The West Germans also pledged to buy weapons in the U.S. The British government also demanded more compensation for its Army of the Rhine and was able to sell weapons to the West Germans.~~~ West German investments abroad amounted to 3.4 billion deutsche mark, most of it (37%) in Europe. Almost 30% was invested in Latin America.~~~ Rudolf Mössbauer (*1929) received the Nobel Prize for Physics.

GDR It was impossible to hide the worsening economic problems from the outside world. Measures were taken to put stricter controls on labor, culminating in the issue of new legislation (April, Gesetzbuch der Arbeit, Labor Code).~~~ In the summer the Berlin Crisis erupted. Every day in July, some 1500 people defected to the West. On August 13, the GDR began to build the Berlin Wall. The corridors across GDR territory that connected Berlin with the Federal Republic, were cut off. The Wall was incorporated into a border that looked more like a prison fence. In a wider sense, the Wall came to symbolize the division of Europe and the Cold War between East and West. Henceforth, GDR citizens could only travel to the West if there was a guarantee they would return. No one was allowed to travel with his family. Family members had to stay behind as hostages. Since 1949 almost 3 million people, most of them highly educated, had fled from the GDR.~~~ The SED finally did away with Stalinism. Ulbricht himself was increasingly criticized for the "personality cult" he had introduced in imitation of Stalin. All remaining public references to Stalin were eliminated by renaming streets and towns. In February, some 16,000 prisoners were pardoned and another 70,000 prisoners were given lighter sentences.

1962

FRG During his official visit to the Federal Republic, French President De Gaulle spoke flattering, but honest and harsh words. De Gaulle's visit marked a recovery of West German collective self-respect. Beginning of the Common Agricultural Policy of the EEC.~~~ The FRG's democratic prestige was damaged by the Spiegel Scandal. In August the police, acting upon superior orders, searched the Hamburg offices of the weekly Der Spiegel, after it had criticized the West German armed forces. The managing editor, Rudolf Augstein (*1923) was arrested. Months afterward it turned out that the reprisal was ordered in part by Franz-Josef Strauss, the defense minister. After some cabinet ministers of the FDP stepped down in protest against Strauss, his position became untenable and he had to offer his resignation (November). Another sensitive point was the presence of former Nazis in key positions. In July almost 150 judges and prosecutors with a stained record had been purged.

GDR In December, SED leader Ulbricht invited the West German government to begin talks leading to German reunification.~~~ The Volkskammer voted general conscription for men between 18 and 26 years of age in January.

1963

FRG The Federal Republic and France signed a treaty of cooperation on January 22 (the "Elysée Treaty"). The two countries agreed on regular consultations at the level of Ministers on a variety of topics. This treaty has since become the cornerstone for cooperation in Europe, which is unthinkable without good relations between France and the Federal Republic. During his visit to West Berlin, U.S. President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made a speech in which he said he was a doughnut ("Ich bin ein Berliner") but he naturally meant to say he felt solidarity with the Berliners. Fortunately, the Berliners understood what he meant to say.~~~ In October Chancellor Adenauer stepped down and was succeeded by Ludwig Erhard, who was known as the architect of the "Wirtschaftswunder" (Economic Miracle).~~~ Economic growth was spectacular for the third consecutive year. BNP growth stood at 6.6% (almost 9% in 1962 and 10% in 1961). Wages increased at the same rate.~~~ Karl Waldemar Ziegler (1898-1973), a professor at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) since 1947, received a Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Hans Daniel Jensen (1907-1973) received the Nobel Prize for Physics.

GDR After Walter Ulbricht had confirmed his position as leader of the GDR, he felt it was his primary goal to strengthen the country's international position. Ulbricht planned to make the GDR less dependent on the Soviet Union by securing diplomatic recognition in the West. Ulbricht's attempts to bring the country at the same level with the Federal Republic through economic reforms met with failure. GDR citizens were quite unhappy with the scarcity of consumer goods. Soviet Party chief Nikita Khrushchev visited the GDR on the occasion of Walter Ulbricht's 70th birthday.~~~ The candidates of the unitary list National Front received 99.95% of the vote at the Volkskammer elections.

1964

FRG Willy Brandt (1913-1992), the Mayor of West Berlin, was elected Chairman of the SPD. In February the "Euthanasia Trial" was opened in Frankfurt. The defendants included Werner Heyde (1902-1964), a former physician in Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, who was accused of the murder of 73,000 mentally handicapped persons. After Heyde and a co-defendant committed suicide the trial was adjourned. In October a trial was begun in Düsseldorf against 11 former SS members who were believed to have participated in the murder of hundreds of thousands of persons in Treblinka destruction camp.~~~ The number of "Gastarbeiter" (Guest workers) broke through the one-million mark.~~~ The Biochemist Feodor Lynen (1911-1979) was awarded a Nobel Prize for Medicine.

GDR On June 12 the GDR and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship and assistance. The Soviets formally declared that the borders of the GDR could not be violated.~~~ Otto Grotewohl died on September 21. His post was taken up by Willi Stoph (*1914), who became chairman of the council of ministers and deputy chairman of the State Council. The chemist Robert Havemann (1910-1982) was evicted from his university teaching position and thrown out of the SED because of his request for greater freedom in the GDR. In celebration of the 15th anniversary of the GDR (October 7), a general pardon was issued. Some 10,000 political prisoners were given lighter sentences. In September the government decided to allow retired GDR citizens to visit their West German relatives once a year.~~~ For the first time, the GDR participated in the Olympic Games (Tokyo) with a separate delegation. East German athletes won 19 medals (three gold). In the following years, sports would become an important instrument for the GDR in securing respect and prestige for that portion of Germany that lived under "really existing socialism."

1965

FRG When in the spring the Federal Republic opened diplomatic relations with Israel, all Arab states except Libya, Morocco and Tunisia, broke off relations with Bonn.~~~ After the Bundestag elections of September 19 (CDU/CSU 47.6%, SPD 39.3%, FDP 9.5%), Ludwig Erhard was able to continue the coalition government. In the Bundestag the Christian Democrats had 245 seats, the Socialists 202 and the Liberals 40 seats. Yet serious differences over foreign policy surfaced within the coalition. Gerhard Schröder (1910-1989), the foreign minister, wanted close ties with the U.S. but CSU leader Strauss favored a closer relationship with France. Erich Mende (*1916), leader of the FDP and Vice Chancellor, on the other hand, preferred a more flexible attitude towards Eastern Europe.~~~ The Bundestag voted to extend the term of limitation for murder with five years (until 1969) so as to provide a legal basis for the continued prosecution of war criminals. In 1969 the term of limitation was again extended until 1979 and then abolished forever.

GDR In February the Volkskammer voted legislation drastically reforming the education system.~~~ On December 3 Erich Apel (1917-1965) committed suicide. Apel was chairman of the State Planning Committee, which was responsible for economic development in the GDR.~~~ On the last day of the year, Walter Ulbricht announced a seven-point plan for the normalization of relations between the two Germanies. One of the proposals was the mutual renouncement of nuclear weapons and the signing of a general agreement to halt armaments.

1966

FRG The CDU was defeated in the elections for the regional parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia. The SPD became the biggest party there (49.5% of the vote). The election results put pressure on the ruling CDU/CSU and FDP coalition. At the end of October the FDP ministers walked out of the cabinet after a conflict over the budget. The following month, Ludwig Erhard stepped down as Chancellor. Two days later, on December 1, the CDU/CSU and the SPD formed a new coalition government, the "Grosse Koalition," or Grand Coalition. Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU, 1904-1988) became Chancellor. Willy Brandt, who had been SPD Chairman since 1964, became Vice Chancellor and foreign minister. In August, the inspector of the air force, General Werner Panitzky (*1911) resigned. He felt that the acquisition of U.S.-made Lockheed "Starfighter" jet fighters had been made on political grounds. Since 1961, more than 60 of these planes had crashed. The opposition was therefore calling for the resignation of defense minister Kai Uwe von Hassel (1913-1997).

GDR Walter Ulbricht attempted to bring about a rapprochement between the two Germanies. The GDR applied for UN membership in the hopes of forcing the Federal Republic to follow suit. At the same time, Ulbricht requested West German loans to compensate for the serious damage the East German economy had to undergo as a result of imposed limitations on trade and diplomatic relations.

1967

BRD The state visit to the FRG by Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi of Iran (1919-1980) provoked massive protest demonstrations in several cities. In West Berlin the police intervened and opened fire on the demonstrators, killing one student.~~~ Together with the other member states of the EEC, the FRG introduced the Value Added Tax (VAT, Mehrwertsteuer). As a consequence, the price of many consumer goods increased by as much as 20%.~~~ In April the Federal government approached the GDR leadership with the aim of improving relations and suggesting economic, technical and transport cooperation.~~~ Manfred Eigen (*1927), who since 1964 had been director of a research center of the Max Planck Institute at Göttingen, received a Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

DDR On February 20 the Volkskammer voted legislation establishing a separate citizenship for the GDR. The Federal Republic neither recognized nor respected this measure and therefore it continued to regard the inhabitants of the GDR as Germans and as citizens of the FRG.~~~ At the 7th SED Party Congress it was announced the GDR was entering a new epoch which would end with the full realization of socialism. Party leader Walter Ulbricht proposed the introduction of the five-day week, together with a 15-day vacation for all workers. The minimum monthly wage was to be fixed at 300 East German marks.

1968

FRG On April 11 student leader Rudi Dutschke (1940-1979) was shot and wounded in West Berlin by a young construction worker. Demonstrations and riots then broke out all over the country (Berlin, Frankfurt, Munich and Hamburg). In Munich, two demonstrators were killed. In Frankfurt Daniel Cohn-Bendit (*1945) and Joschka Fischer (*1948) emerged as student leaders with a nationwide following. Cohn-Bendit's speech in France to a number of students helped spark a wave of demonstrations during May, which eventually forced President De Gaulle to step down. The events in West Germany made it clear that the younger generations had serious misgivings about their country. There proved to be little room for real change and reforms. In this climate the "APO," short for Aussenparlamentarische Opposition, (Extraparliamentary opposition) began to take shape. This broad movement was full of socialist and anarchist ideas. Its followers were afraid there was no longer an effective opposition in parliament after the formation of the Grand Coalition. A small group within APO (the RAF in the 1970s) only saw a solution in the use of force. Others merged with the environmentalist movement, squatter groups and "chaoten". The later Green Party borrowed many ideas from this period. The APO received a strong boost when it turned out that even President Heinrich Lübke (1894-1972) had a stain on his career. During the war, Lübke had been a building contractor, making money from the construction of lodgings for concentration camps.

GDR The GDR's process toward complete separation from the FRG was completed on April 6 with the referendum on a new constitution. The number of yes votes, however (94.54%) was unusually low for East German standards. The constitution defined the GDR as a "socialist state within the German nation."~~~ A logical consequence of the GDR's new position was that citizens of the Federal Republic and West Berlin were considered foreigners. They therefore needed a passport and a visa for a visit to the East (June).~~~ On August 20, the Red Army invaded Czechoslovakia and put an end to the "Prague Spring," as the cautious liberalization of Czechoslovak Communism was generally known. The movement was led by Party boss Alexander Dubcek (1921-1992). After the Hungarian rebellion of 1956, this was the second major reform movement in Communism. GDR youths and dissidents were deeply impressed by the Prague Spring. Disappointment was boundless when it turned out that in the GDR there was no room whatsoever for reforms. Meanwhile, the SED's steadfastness and its tight control over the country had made it one of the most important and reliable Soviet allies. This gave the government gradually more prestige and room for maneuver. In the other Eastern Block states, there was little true sympathy for the GDR, which in turn contributed to strengthen the ties between the GDR and the Soviet Union.~~~ At the Summer Olympics in Mexico, East German athletes won 9 gold medals.

1969

FRG The SPD scored an important victory in the Bundestag elections of September 29, winning 42.7% of the vote. The CDU/CSU remained the biggest party with 46.1%. Yet the old Adenauer coalition could not be continued because of serious distrust between the CDU/CSU and the FDP. Hence, the path was clear for a "Lib/Lab" coalition of SPD and FDP. The socialist leader Willy Brandt became Chancellor. Walter Scheel (*1919), the leader of the FDP, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign minister.~~~ The new administration inaugurated the so-called Ostpolitik, (Eastward Policy), which aimed at improving relations with the Soviet Union and its allies, especially Poland and Czechoslovakia.~~~ The landing on the moon by U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong was also a triumph for the German-born rocket builder Wernher von Braun (1912-1977) and his team. They were the same men who in 1942 built and launched the first V-2 rocket. Most postwar U.S. rockets and missiles were based on the original V-2 design.

GDR Led by Walter Ulbricht, the leaders of the GDR doubled their energies in trying to normalize relations with the Federal Republic (September to December). The foremost goal of the GDR government was to have its western borders officially recognized.~~~ The government's drive to chart an independent course was given a new dimension in September when the GDR's Lutheran churches seceded from the Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland(Association of Lutheran Churches in Germany). The new Bund der Evangelischen Kirchen in der DDR (Association of Lutheran Churches in the GDR) held its first synod.

1970

FRG Among the main points on the agenda of the new administration was the improvement and eventual normalization of relations with the GDR. Therefore, Chancellor Willy Brandt had a meeting with Willi Stoph, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR in the East German city of Erfurt (March 19). Two months later, the talks were continued in Kassel.~~~ On August 12 the Federal Republic and the Soviet Union signed a treaty normalizing relations. The signatories also pledged to renounce the use of force. Therefore, the treaty was in effect a non-aggression pact. In Warsaw the FRG and Poland signed a basic treaty normalizing relations (Warsaw Treaty, December 7). The Christian Democrats were enraged by Willy Brandt's "Ostpolitik." They feared that the chances for German reunification were gone forever. CDU leaders Rainer Barzel (*1924) and Gerhard Schröder traveled to Moscow and Warsaw to explain that Brandt did not represent the opinion of most West Germans.~~~ The West German ambassadors in Guatemala (Karl Graf von Spreti) and Brazil (Ehrenfried von Holleben) were abducted by guerrilla fighters with the aim of forcing the local governments to free political prisoners. Ambassador van Spreti was killed by his abductors.

GDR Willi Stoph, Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Chancellor Willy Brandt met for the first time in Erfurt (March 19).~~~ At about the same time the SED imposed stricter controls on the ideological reliability of its members.~~~ In December the Central Committee learned that the plan goals for the production of lignite, textiles and foodstuffs would not be met. Nevertheless the GDR economy did do that badly. Though on the one hand the government tried to differentiate the country from the FRG on the other hand the economy benefited from the growth of the FRG and the EEC. Since the West Germans refused to regard the GDR as foreign territory, they levied no duties on East German imports. Thus the GDR economy could easily export to the West and compete with low wage producers and Western industry. Exports moreover generated urgently needed hard Western currency. In effect the GDR was a non-official member of the EEC.

1971

FRG On September 3, the four powers (U.S., France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union) signed a treaty on the status of West Berlin. The ties between West Berlin and the Federal Republic were recognized. The Soviet Union guaranteed unobstructed access to West Berlin across the territory and through the airspace of the GDR.~~~ Rainer Barzel was elected Chairman of the CDU.~~~ In November and December, the Baden-Württemberg metal industry was hit by a serious wage conflict leading to a big strike of 120,000 workers. Automaker Mercedes-Benz and its many subcontractors were badly hurt by the conflict.

GDR Invoking health reasons, Walter Ulbricht stepped down as First Secretary of the SED Central Committee (May 3). The real reason was his resistance against the policy of détente and the rapprochement between the two Germanies. Ulbricht was succeeded by Erich Honecker. Afterward Honecker took over all of Ulbricht's other functions.~~~ The 8th SED Party Congress (July 15-19) was honored with the presence of Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982), the successor of Nikita Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party.

1972

FRG After the Bundestag had ratified the "Ostverträge" (Eastern Treaties) with Poland and the Soviet Union they went into effect on June 3. In the middle of August negotiations were opened with the GDR concerning a basic treaty for the settlement of mutual relations.~~~ The general elections of November 19 had favorable results for the SPD (45.8%) but more so for the FDP (8.4%). The CDU/CSU lost some votes en received 44.9% of the vote. It was clear that the voters had rewarded the Brandt administration for its "Ostpolitik".~~~ On September 5, during the Summer Olympics at Munich, some PLO terrorists killed two Israeli athletes in an attempt to capture the entire Israeli delegation. Nine Israelis were taken hostage. When the police tried to free them, all nine were killed. The five Palestinian terrorists were also killed.~~~ Heinrich Böll (1917-1985) was the first postwar German writer to receive the Nobel Prize for literature.

GDR In December the GDR opened diplomatic relations with nine countries outside the Eastern Block, such as Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland and Iran. The basic treaty with the Federal Republic was signed on December 21.

1973

FRG The government tried to slow down rapid economic growth by lowering taxes. On June 21 the basic treaty with the GDR came in force. This normalization of relations was a prerequisite for admission to the United Nations of the two Germanies, in September.~~~ Towards the end of the year the stabilization programs that had been introduced earlier in the year had to be adjusted because economic growth had slowed down too much. The number of unemployed broke through the one million barrier.~~~ Ernst Otto Fischer (*1918), a University professor at Munich, received a Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Karl von Frisch (1886-1982) received one for Medicine, together with Konrad Lorenz and the Dutch-born Englishman Nico Tinbergen for their work in etiology.

GDR The diplomatic recognition of the GDR by France and Great Britain (February 9) was quite significant. On June 21 the basic treaty with the FRG came in force. Three months later, the GDR joined the United Nations. Walter Ulbricht died, August 1. The main objective of his later years (recognition of the GDR as an independent state) had still not been realized. However, the GDR had become a normal state accepted by the "international community."~~~ The GDR had many sympathizers in the Netherlands. Not only among Communists, but also among Protestant groups. Many "leftist" Dutchmen regarded the GDR as the "decent" Germany, where neonazis had no chance.

1974

FRGChancellor Willy Brandt had to step down on May 6, after it was known that Günther Guillaume (1927-1995), his personal assistant, was an agent for the Stasi, the East German secret service. As a result, relations with the GDR and "Ostpolitik" were in jeopardy. Brandt was replaced by Helmut Schmidt (*1918). FDP leader Hans-Dietrich Genscher (*1927) became Vice Chancellor and foreign minister. In November, the FRG and Poland signed a 10-year treaty of economic and technical cooperation.~~~ The terrorist Holger Meins (1941-1974) died in prison after a hunger strike.~~~ In July the West German soccer team won the world championship. The final was played in Munich against the Netherlands, which was defeated by 2:1. The Bayern Munich team was responsible for another important success for West German Soccer by winning the European Champions' Cup for the first of three consecutive times. Franz Beckenbauer (*1945), nicknamed "Kaiser Franz", was the pivotal player of both the national team and Bayern Munich.

GDR The diplomatic recognition of the GDR by the U.S. (September 4) rounded off international acceptance and recognition of Communist Germany.~~~ During the World Soccer Championship the GDR team defeated West Germany (1:0). This victory caused an explosion of joy and pride and was regarded by many as symbolic for the country's independence.

1975

FRG The trial against Andreas Baader (1945) en Ulrike Meinhof (1934-1976) began on May 21. The defendants were the original leaders of the underground terror group Rote Armee Fraktion, ("Red Army Fraction," also known as the "Baader Meinhof Gang"). Through a well-aimed terror campaign, such as assassinations of leading politicians and businessmen, the RAF hoped to provoke a fierce reaction from the state. Eventually, the civilian population would begin to resist growing state repression. Then a revolution could overthrow the state and a new society could be built. The RAF also had close ties with the PLO, the organization that was trying to create a separate Palestinian state through a terrorist campaign against Israeli and Jewish targets all over the world. RAF members received military and commando training in Lebanon, Syria and Libya and other states at war with Israel. On February 27 the Bewegung der 2. Juni (June 2 Movement) abducted Peter Lorenz (*1922), leader of the CDU in West Berlin in order to achieve the release from prison of 5 captured comrades. The 5 were flown the Yemen. Lorenz was returned within 10 days. Two months later, on April 24, a group of RAF members occupied the West German Embassy at Stockholm to put pressure on the Federal government to release the leaders of the movement. Through a mistake by the terrorists, however, the Embassy was destroyed by an explosion killing diplomats and terrorists. The action failed to yield any result.~~~ West Germany and Brazil signed a treaty for the peaceful use of nuclear energy (June 27).

GDR In an effort to make the separate position of the GDR as a socialist German state more popular among the citizens, the SED government organized a day of national celebration on October 7, the date on which the GDR had been proclaimed in 1949. Soon afterward the government instituted the honorary title of "Hero of the GDR," after the Soviet example of "Hero of the Soviet Union." The new title enabled the authorities to bestow a fitting tribute upon deserving civilians, officials and soldiers.~~~ The GDR and the FRG exchanged diplomats for the first time on December 18. These diplomats were called "permanent representatives," not Ambassadors, since the FRG refused to recognize the GDR as a foreign country.~~~ The inter-German trade reached a record volume of 7.3 billion deutsche mark.

1976

FRG RAF member Ulrike Meinhof was found dead in her cell in Stammheim prison, near Stuttgart (May 9). The prison authorities said Meinhof had committed suicide, but this was not believed in leftist circles.~~~ Serious riots between demonstrators and the police broke out near Brokdorf, where a new nuclear power plant was to be built (November 13).~~~ The CDU/CSU scored a big victory at the October 3 general elections, gaining almost half the vote (48.6%), an increase of almost 4 percentage points. Though the SPD lost, receiving 42.6% (214 seats), the ruling coalition with the FDP (7.9% and 39 seats) remained in power. Helmut Schmidt stayed as Chancellor and Genscher as Vice Chancellor and Foreign minister.~~~ The East German songwriter and singer Wolf Biermann (*1936) was allowed to leave the GDR for a tour of West Germany sponsored by the DGB union. When, contrary to the agreement, Biermann was not allowed back into the GDR, there were protests in the GDR and many other countries.

GDR The GDR also became a separate state in the realm of private law. A new civil code was enacted on January 1, the ZGB (Zivilgesetzbuch). The old BGB (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch), dating from 1896, and still in force in the FRG, was abolished.~~~ The 9th SED Party Congress (May 18-22) adopted new party statutes. Erich Honecker was appointed General Secretary of the Central Committee, as the former function of First Secretary was now called. In July the SED decided to raise the minimum wage.~~~ Lutheran pastor Oskar Brüsewitz committed suicide by burning himself (August), acting in protest against the SED youth policy and the passivity of the church. In November the dissident scientist Robert Havemann, a well-known regime critic, was given house arrest. The regime deviously tried to rid itself of another critic, Wolf Biermann.~~~ At the Summer Olympics in Montreal GDR participants won 26 gold medals, mostly in athletics, swimming and boxing. These successes increased the international prestige of the "other" Germany. Together with the increase of prosperity, sports successes strengthened the SED regime. Never before had GDR citizens been so proud and confident.

1977

FRG In the spring, the RAF stepped up its actions, killing Federal Prosecutor Siegfried Buback (1920-1977) and his driver on April 7. The next victim was Jürgen Ponto (1923-1977), director of the Dresdner Bank (July 30). On September 5, the Chairman of the West German Employers' Association, Daimler-Benz director Hanns-Martin Schleyer (1915-1977), was taken hostage. The RAF wanted to force the government to release three convicted and imprisoned comrades (Andreas Baader, Jan-Carl Raspe and Gudrun Ensslin). The government did not accede to the demands and meanwhile tried to locate the hostage. On October 13, a Lufthansa airliner was hijacked by PLO terrorists also demanding the release of the RAF prisoners. As the airplane stood on the tarmac of the airport of Mogadishu, Somalia, the anti terrorist unit (GSG-9) of the Bundesgrenzschutz, landed and freed all the passengers. In the process, all PLO terrorists were killed. Back in West Germany, the RAF killed their hostage and the three RAF comrades in prison probably committed suicide.~~~ Nuclear physicist Klaus Traube found out he had been bugged since 1976 by West German counterintelligence, (Verfassungsschutz), on an order of the Minister of the Interior, Werner Maihofer (*1918). Traube sought to recover his honor and reputation, which the Bundestag eventually granted him, but in the process he lost his job. This bugging scandal damaged the FRG's prestige as a democratic state respecting civil rights.~~~ Muckraking journalist Günther Wallraff (*1942), working for the critical and satyrical journals konkret en Pardon, published an article on the practices of the Yellow Press daily Bild, West Germany's most widely read newspaper. Wallraff showed how it manipulated public opinion by appealing to the public's basest sentiments (sexism, fear of foreigners, primitive nationalism, distrust of intellectuals and men with long hair).

GDR Rudolf Bahro (*1935), an important SED official, published a sharp criticism on Communist regimes under the title "The Alternative" (Die Alternative-Zur Kritik des real existierenden Sozialismus). Bahro was immediately arrested for publishing this book (in the FRG). According to a report from Amnesty International, the GDR had some 5,000 to 6,000 political prisoners.~~~ The GDR's per capita income stood at $4,220 and was thus the highest in the Eastern Block. However, the government had to pay $20 billion every year in subsidies on food, rent, transportation and other items.

1978

FRG The fourth G-7 economic summit of the biggest Western industrial nations (U.S., Japan, West Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada) was held in Bonn.~~~ The federal government was angered at Yugoslavia's refusal to extradite 4 imprisoned RAF terrorists. Instead, the Yugoslav authorities allowed them to leave the country. The Yugoslavs, however, retaliated because the Federal government had yielded to pressure from the CDU and the Vatican not to extradite some Croats wanted for trial in Yugoslavia.

GDR In March, Erich Honecker promised the Lutheran Church (Bund der Evangelischen Kirchen in der DDR) a greater degree of freedom in church matters. In exchange, the Church pledged to refrain from criticizing the GDR and Socialism.~~~ For the first time, 8th and 9th graders were given military training (Wehrunterricht).~~~ GDR cosmonaut Sigmund Jähn (*1937) became the first German in space. Jähn took part in a Soviet mission aboard Salyut 6.

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

FRG General elections were held on March 6. The SPD went back to 38.2% of the vote, while the CDU/CSU won 48.8%. The FDP had 7%. The environmentalist Green Party ("Grünen") entered the Bundestag after winning 5.6% of the vote. Helmuth Kohl became Chancellor.~~~ In November the government decided to deploy U.S. medium range missiles and cruise missiles on West German territory. This decision was controversial because it seemed to increase the chances of a limited nuclear war breaking out in Europe. The deployment of U.S. missiles was meant as an answer to the introduction of a new type of missile, the SS-20, by the Soviets. These weapons were fired from mobile launchers and were difficult to locate. Many Europeans were afraid that in the case of a war between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the U.S. would refrain from firing its intercontinental missiles and prefer to fight a limited nuclear war on European soil, at the expense of the European population.~~~ The police arrested RAF members Brigitte Mohnhaupt (1949), Adelheid Schulz and Christian Klar (1952).

GDR On February 14, more than 100,000 people took part in a peace demonstration in Dresden. This was a clear sign that many GDR citizens were increasingly worried at the SED government's collision course and tough talk in the tense East-West situation. In January the GDR Lutheran bishops had voiced their concern over the arms buildup in a pastoral letter.~~~ On July 1, the GDR received a one billion deutsche mark credit from the Federal Republic.

1984

1985

1986

1987

FRG The results of the general elections consolidated the position of the ruling CDU/CSU-FDP coalition government. The Christian Democrats received 44.3% and the FDP 9.1% of the vote. The Greens increased their share to 8.3%. The SPD earned 37%. The strong position of the Greens signified the end of the key position of indispensable coalition partner that FDP had had since the creation of the Federal Republic.~~~ In September the General Secretary of the East German SED, Erich Honecker, was in the country on an official visit.~~~ At about the same time the Schleswig-Holstein regional elections were marred by a remarkable scandal. Björn Engholm (*1939), the SPD's main candidate, had been spied on and was slandered by the CDU. Although Uwe Barschel (1944-1987), the local CDU Prime Minister, solemnly swore he had nothing to do with the affair and that the charges against him were unfounded, he had to step down (October 2). More than a week later, on October 11, Barschel was found dead fully dressed in his hotel bathtub in Geneva, where he was staying for a business meeting.

GDR Political tension inside the GDR was mounting. More and more people and groups were voicing criticism against SED policy. In the beginning of March, the representatives of several hundred church groups demanded an immediate ban on the use of nuclear energy in the GDR. On June 8, the Volkspolizei tried to prevent large groups of young people assembled near the Brandenburg Gate from listening to the sounds of a rock concert held on the other side of the wall in West Berlin. Three months later, some thousand people participated in a peace demonstration in East Berlin (September 5). The police used force to disperse the demonstrators. Later that month the synod of Lutheran Churches in Görlitz demanded more political rights. In November big anti-Stasi demonstrations were held in East Berlin, Dresden, Halle, Weimar and Wismar. The secret police had begun searching the places where human rights and peace activists and environmentalists held their meetings. Though few arrests were made, many people felt intimidated.~~~ In February Markus Wolf (*1923) stepped down as head of foreign intelligence of the Ministry for State Security. This resignation is sometimes interpreted as connected with the failure of reforms in the GDR. After Honecker had come to power, the Security Ministry had grown impressively. With the help of an army of 100,000 secret agents and some 180,000 informers, the state tried to keep the population under close surveillance.~~~ In July, 40,000 prisoners were pardoned and the death penalty was abolished. The GDR was the first Warsaw Pact nation to do so.~~~ In June Erich Honecker officially visited the Netherlands. It was the third NATO country (after Italy and Greece in 1985) that welcomed him. The Netherlands and the GDR signed a treaty for economic and medical cooperation. On his September visit to the FRG, Honecker also visited his native town of Trier, the same town where Karl Marx, founder of Communism had been born as well.

1988

1989

1990

1991

In order to pay for the high cost of reunification, the federal government was forced to raise taxes (February 21).~~~ Detlev Karsten Rohwedder (1932-1991), president of the Treuhandanstalt, (Trust Institute) that led and coordinated the privatization of collective property in the former GDR, was killed by the RAF (April 2).~~~ By a narrow margin of 17 votes, the Bundestag decided to move the government from Bonn to Berlin (June 20). The decision was controversial for several reasons. There were fears that the move from Bonn would constitute a departure from the old Federal Republic and its traditions. There was also some apprehension that Germany would go its own way and for the third time turn against its neighbors. The violent actions of right-wing extremists (young neonazis) against Third World refugees in Hoyerswerda (September) increased fear and suspicion abroad about the resurgence of a dangerous kind of German nationalism. Such fears did not seem totally unfounded. In December, reunified Germany extended diplomatic recognition to Slovenia and Croatia, which had seceded, from Yugoslavia. Slovenia had long been part of the German Empire and Croatia had been a faithful Nazi client state. Many European governments considered the German action to be premature. Only the Vatican equaled Germany with its speedy recognition of the two largely Roman Catholic nations. The German "Alleingang" (solitary action) was seen as an important cause for the eruption of violence in the former Yugoslavia. Nevertheless Germany joined the other members of the European Union in approving the Maastricht Treaty which comprised plans for radical integration. Looking back, one may say that the premature recognition of Croatia and Slovenia has been the only stain on Germany's foreign policy record.

1992

1993

1994

1995

The Luftwaffe, the German air force, began flying interdiction and combat missions in the former Yugoslavia. It was the first time since the end of World War II that German aircraft participated in such missions. These were flown under NATO command and under the auspices of the UN In December the Bundestag voted to send 4000 ground troops to Bosnia to help enforce the Dayton agreement.~~~ On January 1, the Federal postal and telephone service had been privatized. One of the firms that was thus created was the Deutsche Telekom, the world's third-biggest telephone company.~~~ Within the framework of military cooperation between NATO countries, Germany and the Netherlands agreed to create a common army corps. All Dutch combat-ready troops (the 20,000 man First Army Corps) would be merged with German units and operate under a permanently integrated German-Dutch command structure. The Dutch army largely lost its autonomy. The new corps comprised almost 40,000 troops and 3,500 armored vehicles. There was no political protest in the Netherlands, which meant that Dutch-German relations were quite good.

1996

The SPD incurred serious losses during several regional elections, whereas the parties composing the federal government (CDU/CSU and FDP) emerged strengthened from these elections. Nevertheless, the government was forced to make some unpopular decisions in order to solve a number of urgent problems. Firstly, the cost of integrating the former GDR and secondly, the curbing of federal expenditure. The latter was necessary because of the nation's disappointing economic performance.~~~ Resistance was mounting against European monetary integration, to which Germany had committed itself. More than 60% of Germans seriously objected to the abolition of the deutsche mark and the introduction of the Euro. However, the government could no longer take this into account. Moreover, budget cuts of some 70 billion deutsche mark had to made. In May and June, strikes against proposed wage cuts broke out all over the country. After a compromise between the government and the unions, the Bundestag approved the austerity measures on June 28.~~~ After an Italian court had declared the former Wehrmacht officer Erich Priebke not punishable for the 1944 murder of over 300 civilians near Rome, the German government requested his extradition. The publication of Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, by the U.S. scholar Daniel Goldhagen, caused an uproar. Goldhagens assertion that the German people were "naturally" anti-Semitic and therefore liked to assist in the murder of millions of Jews during World War II, left many people stunned and indignant. Among scholars, however, there is little appreciation for Goldhagens simplistic views.

1997

1998

The SPD and the Greens won a resounding victory at the Bundestag elections. The SPD won 40.9% (298 seats), the Green Party 6.7% (47 seats). The CDU/CSU only got 35.2% and 245 seats and the FDP 6.2% and 44 seats. The PDS climbed back to 35 seats (5.1%). Gerhard Schröder of the SPD became Chancellor. Joschka Fischer, leader of the B90/Grüne, a former student leader and anti-establishment activist, became Vice Chancellor and foreign minister.

1999

The Luftwaffe, the German air force, participated in the NATO war against Serbia. German ground forces were deployed in Kosovo to help preserve order. It was ironic that the parties and politicians that in the past had seemed peaceful and conciliatory, now were enthusiastic about the war against Serbia.~~~ During the summer most branches of the government completed their move from Bonn to Berlin. Thus Berlin had regained its position as the capital of Germany. Though the government vehemently denied it, the move signified the end of an era. Many Germans and foreigners were convinced that the "Berliner Republik" would be different from the old, familiar "Bonner Republik". In November, former Chancellor Kohl was implied in a financial scandal. As CDU party leader, he had been responsible for the embezzlement in the 1970s and 1980s of big sums of money for the benefit of the party treasury.~~~ Günther Grass (*1927) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for his entire work, but especially for his novel Die Blechtrommel, (the Tin Drum), from 1959. The German cell biologist Günther Blobel (*1936) received a Nobel Prize for Medicine.