1943

1944

After a sharp debate, a majority of GOU members decided to break with Germany. The military administration immediately took action and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Japan (January 26). Less than four weeks afterward, Perón and other GOU members who opposed the move forced President Ramírez and the foreign minister to step down. General Edelmiro Farrell (1887-1980) now became president (February 24). Three months later, Perón was appointed Vice President. Both within Argentina and abroad, there was growing resentment against Perón. His intentions seemed unclear and his methods objectionable.~~~ The U.S. administration suspected that Perón was a covert Nazi ally and was concerned about the military-strategic position of South America. In June the U.S. ambassador in Buenos Aires was recalled. Trade with Argentina was suspended. In August, Argentine bank accounts in the U.S. were frozen. At the same time, the administration launched a massive diplomatic offensive against Argentina. Since 1941, the Americans had been angry at Argentina's refusal to join most other Middle and South American republics in declaring war on the Axis powers. However, many Argentines sympathized with the allied cause. The liberation of Paris (August 25) was celebrated in Buenos Aires with almost as much exuberance and effervescence as in Paris itself.~~~ In Argentina, support for Perón was growing daily, with massive pro-Perón demonstrations.

1945

1946

Juan Domingo Perón declared his candidacy for the nation's highest office on February 12, one day after the State Department, in cooperation with the OSS, had published the "Blue Book." This was an indictment of Perón and the military administration, who were accused of active collaboration with the Nazis. Ambassador Braden became actively involved in the anti-Peronist campaign, making fiery speeches at opposition rallies. Perón reacted by coining the campaign slogan "Braden o Perón" ("Braden or Perón"). With 1.5 million votes, Perón won a great victory in the February 24 elections, considered to be the most democratic ever held until then. The UCR (Unión Cívica Radical) received 1.2 million votes. Perón took all provincial administrations, except that of Corrientes. On June 4, Perón was sworn in as president. High on the agenda of the new administration was the nationalization of infrastructure and the means of production. First, the telephone company and the French-owned railroads (25% of the total) were nationalized (September 3 and November 17, respectively). The opposition was dealt a severe blow when on August 10 the Province of Corrientes was placed under federal supervision.~~~ The economy was in a healthy shape with foreign reserves amounting to $1.7 billion.

1947

On January 1 the administration announced the first five-year Plan. Like the Soviet economy since the 1920s and the economies of Hitler Germany and Mussolini's Italy, the Argentine economy was henceforth to be determined by centrally established plans. On February 13 the administration bought the remaining 75% of the railroad system still in foreign (British) hands, thus realizing an old nationalist dream. Although the railroads had been largely decapitalized due to lack of maintenance, Perón bought them for 150 million pounds Sterling ($ 600 million). Nationalists had long been pleading to nationalize the huge system (45,000 kilometers, 28,000 miles) for the sake of national economic independence. The fact that the railroads were largely British-owned was seen as symbolic for the overall Argentine economic dependence on Great Britain. Not surprisingly, support for the Peronists reached an all-time high. The administration also decreed that at least 50% of all music played on the radio should be originally Argentinian. The decree helped increase the already substantial popularity of the tango. Perón further ingratiated himself with the public by introducing women's suffrage (September 7).~~~ In an effort to raise Argentinian prestige abroad, Eva Perón embarked on a tour of Europe (June 6), visiting the Vatican, Spain, France and Great Britain. The First Lady, now affectionately known as "Evita," was becoming a vital element of the regime. Her charisma and charm earned considerable goodwill. However, Argentina earned true international esteem when Bernardo Houssay (1887-1970) became the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize for scientific work (Medicine and Physiology). Since Houssay was an opponent of Peronism, official enthusiasm was lukewarm at best.

1948

Despite the conspicuous achievements of the Perón administration, the opposition was beginning to gain ground. The political climate became harsh for anyone publicly giving vent to his disagreement with Perón's policies. At the end of January several provinces were placed under federal supervision. The authoritative newspaper La Prensa, a bastion of old-fashioned liberalism and critical towards Perón was brought in serious difficulties. At the beginning of October, deliveries of newsprint were curtailed.~~~ At the London Olympics, the Argentinian Delfo Cabrera won a Gold medal for the Marathon. Cabrera was the second Argentinian to win the event, after Juan Carlos Zabala at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics. It was the first time a Latin American won such an important athletic event.

1949

The Peronists relentlessly continued their transformation of Argentinian society. In March the "National Constituent Convention" (without the participation of delegates from the main opposition party UCR) voted a new constitution. Soon afterward President Perón swore to uphold it. The constitution of 1853, one of the freest and most magnanimous of the Americas, was abolished.~~~ The new constitution offered the administration many possibilities to act against the opposition. In November the main independent newspapers (La Prensa, La Nación, Clarín and La Hora) were brought under government supervision. The Buenos Aires offices of the U.S. news agencies Associated Press and United Press International underwent the same fate. In December a number of independent civilian institutions ACA, (the Argentinian Automobile Club), the elite association Jockey Club and two banks, the Bank of London and South America (BOLSA) and the Banco Francés del Río de la Plata were also placed under government control.~~~ The increase of wealth over the past years (real wages had grown by 60% since 1945) had made popular support for Perón almost indestructible.~~~ Driving a Maserati, Juan Manuel Fangio (1911-1995) won his first Grand Prix victory in Europe.

1950

On January 1, President Perón inaugurated the "Year of the Liberator General San Martín," commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the death in 1850 of José de San Martín (1778-1850), a soldier who had helped consolidate Argentina´s independence. (In 1817 San Martín won decisive victories over Pro-Spanish forces in Chile and in 1821 he played a central role in the independence of Perú). The celebration of the San Martín-year was meant to symbolize the union between the Argentinian armed forces and the people. After all, the army continued to be one of the main supporters of Peronism.~~~ In January Eva Perón was diagnosed as having incurable cancer. She was also one of the regime's main supporters, especially through her welfare and charity work. In order to help her do this work the "Fundación Eva Perón" (Eva Perón Foundation), which Eva herself presided, received many additional state funds and privileges (October).~~~ After a victory over the U.S. team the Argentinian basketball team won the world championships.

1951

The year's key event were the general elections held under the recently revised constitution. In contrast with previous elections, the president was allowed to run for immediate reelection. This meant that Perón was a candidate and the main contender for the highest office. The biggest union CGT and the "Partido Justicialista" (the official name of the Peronist movement) wanted Eva Perón to be a candidate for Vice President. However, under army pressure she had to refuse.~~~ Although the power, influence and popularity of Peronism were growing by the day, resistance against the regime also was gaining force. The railroad strike in January dealt a psychological blow to Peronism. Within the army, disaffection was mounting. On September 28 General Benjamín Menéndez led a military rebellion that was quickly subdued. General Eduardo Lonardi also participated in the rebellion. At the November 11 elections, Argentinian women were allowed to vote for the first time. Perón's victory (4.75 million votes against 2.4 million for the UCR), hardly came as a surprise.~~~ On October 17, Argentina's first television broadcast included a live coverage of the celebration of "Día de la Lealtad", (Loyalty Day), Peronism's most important holiday. The festivities took place on the Plaza de Mayo (May Square), the capital's central square.~~~ Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands came to Argentina on an official visit, heading a big delegation. The Prince arrived with the purpose of selling railroad equipment and small arms. On behalf of the Dutch air force, Bernhard also expressed interest for the Pulqui II, a jet fighter built in Argentina by dr. Kurt Tank (1898-1983), chief designer of the former German aircraft factory Focke Wulf. The Pulqui, the first jet plane to be built in Latin America, seemed an attractive alternative for British and American then available.~~~ At the Pan American Games held in Buenos Aires, Argentine athletes performed extremely well. Argentina had become the second sporting nation in the Americas, after the U.S. Driving for Alfa Romeo, Fangio won his first world championship in auto racing.

1952

Many Argentinians mourned the death of Eva Perón (July 26). Eva's funeral took place with hundreds of thousands of people watching. In Eva, the regime lost a key charismatic person. Although Perón had been sworn in for a second six-year term on June 4, without "Santa Evita" his regime missed an essential element. Perón's enemies were elated, for Peronism now lost part of its attractiveness.~~~ The economy was in shambles. As a result of continuous wage increases, meat consumption had soared, causing a corresponding structural decline in the volume of meat that could be sold abroad. The balance of payments became a problem. A bad harvest complicated matters, because Argentina had to import wheat. However, since 1950 wages had decreased by 25% as a result of a stabilization policy. Foreign investors were welcomed once again. Nevertheless the negotiations on oil exploration with Standard Oil of New Jersey (Exxon) led to a howl of protest among nationalist Peronists.

1953

Further cracks in the Peronist regime were showing. On April 9 Juan Duarte (1914-1953), Eva's brother and the President's private secretary, was found dead in the street. Although official reports attributed the death to suicide, there was a lingering suspicion that it was an involuntary and violent death. Any perpetrators were never found. During a CGT rally with Perón addressing the crowd, two bombs went off, killing and wounding some people. After the meeting, an angry crowd destroyed the building of the Jockey Club and property of the UCR and the socialists.~~~ President Perón focused his attention on international relations, visiting Chile in February. Perón signed a treaty that would lead to an economic union between Argentina and Chile. A similar treaty was signed with Paraguay. Argentina and Great Britain signed a trade agreement. The visit to Argentina by Milton Eisenhower, President Dwight Eisenhower's brother and special representative, was quite significant since it initiated a normalization of relations with the U.S. The Eisenhower administration wanted Argentinian support in the Cold War while Argentina was hoping to secure American funding for ambitious projects.~~~ Enrique Morea became the first Argentinian to win the open English Tennis Championship at Wimbledon. Pedro Leopoldo Carrera en Enrique Navarra won world championships in billiards.

1954

In November Perón warned that Roman Catholics were infiltrating Peronist organizations. The unions ordered a general strike in support of the government. The Argentinian bishops were furious and rejected the accusations. On December 3, Perón curtailed the Roman Catholic supervision on education. A few days later, Congress passed a divorce bill, which the Church condemned in a pastoral letter. The conflict between Church and State was further exacerbated when on December 30 Perón allowed the reopening of brothels.~~~ Economic relations with the Federal Republic of Germany were strengthened. German firms participated in the buildup of the Argentinian steel industry.~~~ In Tokyo Pascual Pérez won the world championship in featherweight boxing, thus realizing the fervent hopes of the Argentinian public for a world title in this popular sport.

1955

In March the U.S. Eximbank issued a loan for the construction of a steel mill in San Nicolás. Relations with the U.S. had thus been de facto normalized.~~~ The conflict with the Roman Catholic Church worsened. In April, religious education was abolished in state schools and in May the Senate approved a revision of the constitution that would separate Church and State. In June some priests were imprisoned for conspiring against the state. On June 11, many faithful used the Corpus Christi procession to protest against the government. A few days later there was a rebellion by the navy, where of all armed forces, sympathy for Perón was traditionally the lowest. From Catalina flying boats, the rebels dropped bombs on the Casa Rosada, (the Pink House) the presidential palace. The rebellion failed (June 16). That evening, a large Peronist crowd vented its rage against a number of churches, which were looted and set ablaze. Two weeks later a number of cabinet ministers resigned. In July Perón issued a futile appeal for national reconciliation. After Perón had offered to resign (August 31), the CGT organized a general strike in his support. On September 16 a military coup led by General Eduardo Lonardi (1896-1956) put an end to the Perón regime. This coup is generally known as the "Revolution of Liberation" (Revolución Libertadora). Perón took refuge in the Paraguayan embassy and from there fled to Paraguay (October 3). After two months, the army, allegedly for health reasons removed General Lonardi, but in fact because radical anti-Peronists found he was being soft on Peronism. Lonardi showed leniency with respect to Peronist army personnel and only fired the highest officers known to be Perón supporters. Lonardi was replaced by General Pedro E. Aramburu (1903-1970).

1956

In January Raúl Prebisch (1901-1986) published his plan for the Argentinian economy. Arguing that national industrialization could only be achieved on the basis of locally produced bulk goods, Prebisch stressed the need for building up heavy industry. This was only possible with tariff protection. In broad lines, Prebisch's plan resembled the key points of ex-president Perón's economic policy. However, Peronism as a political movement was proscribed and being fought with all possible means. On March 9 the wearing of Peronist symbols (lapel pins) was made punishable. On October 10 a "Commission for the Defense of Democracy" was created. It had to fight both Peronism and Communism. The 1949 constitution was abolished and replaced by the 1853 constitution. The divorce law was repealed.~~~ Support for Perón had not vanished, however. On June 9 General Juan José Valle led a Peronist rebellion, which failed. Twenty-seven persons were summarily executed. Yet, this did not eliminate lingering pro-Perón sentiment in the army.~~~ In August, Perón arrived in his new exile, Caracas. At that moment, Colonel Marcos Pérez Jiménez was in power in Venezuela, trying to put into effect a kind of Peronist policy.~~~ In Monza, Italy, Juan Manuel Fangio won his third consecutive world championship in car racing.

1957

President Aramburu announced the return to democracy, promising to hold elections in the (Argentinian) fall of 1958. He added, however, that the "monster" Perón was never to be permitted a comeback. In March a number of Peronist escaped from prison in Río Gallegos (in Patagonia) and fled to Chile. Among them were "party ideologist" John William Cooke and Héctor Cámpora (1909-1980). In September and October the "62 Peronist organizations" (a group of trade unions) protested against the government with a number of general strikes.~~~ In December Perón and the UCR candidate for the presidency, Arturo Frondizi (1908-1995), reached a secret agreement on the upcoming elections. Perón would instruct his followers to vote for Frondizi. In exchange Frondizi, when elected president, would gradually clear the path for the restoration of Peronism.~~~ In January the first Argentinian nuclear reactor went into operation.~~~ In Lima, Peru, The Argentinian national soccer team won the South American championship.

1958

The February 23 general elections, from which the Peronist party was excluded, ended in a big victory for Arturo Frondizi (4 million votes). The other main contender, Ricardo Balbín (1904-1981), received 2.5 million votes. Frondizi's victory would have been impossible without the support Perón gave him from his exile. The first task of the new president was to try to revive the economy. New legislation created better opportunities for foreign investments (December 4). In order to increase beef exports (a main source for foreign currency), the "veda" was introduced: once a week the sale of beef to domestic consumers was suspended.~~~ On August 9 an incident took place with Chile with respect to Snipe Island in the South Atlantic. Both Argentina and Chile claimed sovereignty over this and other islands in the region.~~~ At the end of January Perón left Caracas with his new mistress, Isabel Martínez, a bar maid ("copera") he had met in Panamá City. Perón had to leave Venezuela because the regime of his friend Pérez Jiménez had been overthrown. A new exile was found in the Dominican Republic.

1959

President Frondizi tried to strengthen his foreign contacts and to improve the economy. During an official visit to the U.S. (January), he declared that the days of Argentinian neutrality were over. Henceforth Argentina would be a reliable member of the Western World. These statements were quite significant against the background of the takeover of power in Cuba on New Year's Day by Fidel Castro and his followers. In May Indonesian President Ahmed Sukarno visited Argentina. The Israeli foreign secretary, Mrs. Golda Meïr also came to Argentina on a visit.~~~ In bringing about an economic recovery, Frondizi counted on Alvaro Alsogaray (*1913), the new minister of economic affairs. However, the trade unions rejected Alsogaray's policies, organizing strikes and protest rallies in September and November.~~~ On June 19, General Ossorio Arana led a rabid anti-Peronist military rebellion that was quickly subdued. General Toranzo Montero led a rebellion in September. The military were afraid that Frondizi would clear the path for Peronism. In December a Peronist rural guerilla movement began in Tucumán, Argentina's sugar cane province. Between July and September there had been serious labor unrest among plantation workers. The guerillas, known as "uturuncos", were led by Enrique Manuel Mena, nicknamed "comandante Uturunco". The movement was partly inspired by the success of the Cuban guerillas, who under Fidel Castro had defeated and driven out Fulgencio Batista's dictatorship in just a few years' time.

1960

On January 3, the Tucumán police announced the defeat of the "uturuncos." The Frondizi administration had to cope with a mounting opposition. On January 23 housewives demonstrated against his policies causing a substantial increase in the cost of living. The armed forces were also unhappy. There were rumors they would demand Frondizi's resignation. In an effort to pacify the soldiers, on October 15 Frondizi appointed a new defense secretary, General Rosendo Fraga.~~~ On May 11, agents of the Israeli secret service Mossad abducted Adolf Eichmann (1906-1962) in Buenos Aires. A notorious Nazi criminal responsible for the systematic murder of millions of Jews and Gypsies, Eichmann was brought to Israel for trial.~~~ On July 25 the "General Savio" steel mill was officially inaugurated.~~~ In January Perón left the Dominican Republic, where the political situation was becoming quite uncertain. Perón found a new exile in General Francisco Franco's Spain.

1961

In August President Frondizi welcomed Ernesto "Che" Guevara (1928-1967), the Argentinian-born Cuban minister of the economy. His visit was quite significant in view of the tense relations between Cuban and the U.S. The U.S. administration accused Castro of introducing a communist regime on the island.~~~ Trade union resistance against Frondizi's economic policy was mounting. A big six-week railroad strike ending on December 10 paralyzed transportation.

1962

Under pressure from the armed forces Frondizi broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba on February 8. Although they feared a communist revolution in Argentina, the military in their turn had also been pressured by their American colleagues.~~~ After Frondizi had made good on his promise to Perón in 1957, Peronist candidates ran in the local elections, carrying the Federal District (Buenos Aires) and four provinces (March 18). The results prompted interior minister Alfredo Vitolo to hand in his resignation. He had first annulled the Peronist victories and placed the five regions were under federal control. The following day the rest of the cabinet stepped down. General Aramburu openly called upon President Frondizi to resign. On March 28 the army staged a coup d'état and arrested Frondizi. José María Guido (1910-1975), the president of the Senate, stepped in as president.~~~ In August a smoldering conflict within the army fully erupted. There were two factions, the "azules" and the "colorados", (the blues and the reds, respectively), who disagreed on how to deal with Peronism. In September in Buenos Aires there was an exchange of fire between the parties. The victory of the azules was confirmed with the appointment as army commander of General Juan Carlos Onganía (1914-1995), who was known as a legalist. The azules, favoring a gradual return to normal democracy, enjoyed strong support among the cavalry. The colorados were hard-line anti-peronists. They were also known as gorilas since they were against elections and in favor of staging coups.

1963

On April 2 the conflict between "azules" and "colorados" entered a new phase when the navy joined the colorados in an anti-government revolt. The insurgency ended after a few days with the arrest of one of the leaders, Admiral Isaac Rojas (1906-1993), a former Vice President under Aramburu.~~~ On July 7 there were presidential elections. The UCRP (a breakaway section of the UCR), headed by Arturo Illia (1900-1983) secured a victory with 2.4 million votes. Yet this was only 25% of the total. The other candidates, Oscar Alende en General Aramburu, received 1.6 million and 1.3 million votes, respectively. On October 12, the traditional inauguration day for Argentinian presidents, (the "día de la raza", also known as Columbus Day), Illia took office.~~~ In August the right wing extremist guerilla group Tacuara began its violent campaign with a bank robbery in the capital, seizing 14 million pesos. José Baxter, who later was to become a leader of the Trotskyite ERP, led the group, which initially received funding from the Arab League.

1964

The new Illia administration was not favored with a return of law and order, which were sorely needed. The right wing extremist Tacuara guerillas stepped up their actions. Pressure from the other side of the political spectrum was also growing: the CGT threatened with large-scale coordinated strikes and lockouts if the government would not soon modify its policies. In May CGT members occupied 1200 firms and in June a nationwide transportation strike began. In all some 4 million workers participated. Under this pressure, the government had no option but to introduce a minimum wage.~~~ Calls for a return of Perón became ever louder. Several Peronist leaders, including trade union boss Augusto T. Vandor (1923-1969), organized a secret return of Perón, the so-called "Operación Retorno". The attempt failed when Perón's airliner made a landing at Rio de Janeiro. The Brazilian authorities intercepted him and sent him back to his exile in Madrid (December 2).~~~ At the end of August the UN requested Great Britain to initiate negotiations with Argentina on the return of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Argentinian pilot Miguel Fitzgerald flew to the islands and planted his country's flag to support Argentina's claims. (September 8).

1965

In the winter (February and March) the nation was rocked by a series of terrorist attacks.~~~ Anti-American sentiment received a boost from the general indignation over the invasion of the Dominican Republic by U.S.marines sent to protect American property. During a massive CGT protest demonstration in Buenos Aires, one person was killed and several others were wounded (May 12). University students also mounted big demonstrations.~~~ On December 10 an Antarctic expedition led by Colonel Jorge Leal reached the South Pole.

1966

Like the army a few years earlier, the trade union movement was now torn apart by strife. Like in the army, discord had to do with Perón and Peronism. In the name of Perón, the ex-President's third wife, Isabel Martínez, supported José Alonso, Secretary of the CGT. Likewise, the "62 Organizations" could count on Perón's support. When Alonso announced that Perón had ordered the removal from the movement of Augusto T. Vandor, a violent struggle ensued between the supporters of Vandor and Alonso, ending in massive street fights on February 10. In May, three bosses of the metal workers' unions were killed in a shootout in a café in Avellaneda, an industrial suburb of Buenos Aires.~~~ The army was worried about Perón's growing hold on the trade unions, with the administration remaining passive. There were persistent rumors about an impending coup. On May 29 army commander General Pascual Pistarini (*1915), confirmed these rumors. Several media and journalists, among them the respected Jacobo Timerman (1923-1999), openly welcomed such a military takeover of the government. On June 28 the expected coup took place. President Illia was removed from the presidential palace and the following day; retired Lieutenant General Onganía was made president. The coup and its program to reform the society and the economy were known as the "Revolución Argentina". Within the next few days, all political parties were dissolved. On July 29 all universities were placed under state control, ending the days of academic autonomy. That evening, using excessive force, soldiers and policemen cleared out all departments in what became known as the "night of the long sticks" (noche de los bastones largos).~~~ On September 28 "Operation Condor" took place. Youthful nationalists hijacked an airliner and forced it to land on the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, thus trying to support Argentinian claims to the archipelago.

1967

In January, the minister of economic affairs, Alberto Krieger Vasena (*1920), published his recovery plans, calling for a rigid monetarist policy and a warm welcome for foreign investments. As a prerequisite, wages would have to stay low while the food and transportation prices were to be freed from state control. The CGT was rabidly opposed, calling for a general strike and threatening with additional actions.~~~ In August President Onganía announced measures to fight Communism. All Communist activity was declared illegal. The regime was relieved to learn that on October 10 the charismatic Argentinian-born guerilla leader "Che" Guevara (a hero of the Cuban Revolution) had been shot by U.S. Rangers while on campaign in the Bolivian jungle.~~~ The Racing soccer club from Avellaneda, regarded as a bastion of Peronism, won the world cup for club teams in a match against Celtic Glasgow from Scotland (November 4).

1968

The guerilla problem proved to be more difficult and more deeply rooted than expected. On September 19 a Peronist guerilla band was captured in Taco Ralo in Tucumán Province. Under its leader Envar El Kadre, it operated in the spirit of Fidel Castro and "Che" Guevara.~~~ On August 23 General Alejandro Agustín Lanusse (1918-1996) was appointed army commander.~~~ In May doctor Miguel Bellizi carried out Argentina's first heart transplant, demonstrating the high level of Argentinian medicine.~~~ On October 16 the soccer club Estudiantes de la Plata won the world cup for club teams against Manchester United in a very violent and unfair match. Several Manchester players were carried off the field bleeding.

1969

In April the Peronist urban guerilla band FAL (Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación, Armed Forces of Liberation) began its operations with an attack on Campo de Mayo army base, near Buenos Aires. In November bombs went off near the offices of several foreign firms.~~~ Resistance against the Onganía regime was mounting. In May there was a nationwide wave of protest demonstrations especially in the key provincial cities of Rosario en Córdoba. Rosario was put under military control. On May 29 the situation in Córdoba completely ran out of hand, with the government losing control for several days. Factory workers and university students had joined forces in what was in fact a revolution, the "cordobazo". The army had to reestablish order with a lot of violence (14 people killed). At the end of August a nationwide strike paralyzed the country.~~~ On June 30 union boss Augusto Vandor was killed in the offices of the UOM metal workers' union.~~~ The Dutch soccer club Feyenoord Rotterdam won the world cup for club teams against Estudiantes de la Plata.

1970

1971

It was becoming clear that, like his predecessor, President Levingston was unable to govern. Therefore, he was removed (March 23) and replaced by General Lanusse. Interior minister Arturo Mor Roig (1914-1974) lifted the ban on political parties, thus making the first step towards political normalization and a return to democracy. The new president made a vain appeal for national reconciliation. In order to promote quiet, the government decreed a price freeze and a hike of salaries and retirement payments (September 2). Not satisfied, the CGT called another general strike that was widely observed. Quiet did not return. In November and December there were nationwide wildcat strikes amidst a wave of bomb attacks and assassination attempts.~~~ Perón made Héctor J. Cámpora, a faithful and docile follower, his personal representative in Argentina.

1972

At the end of January the Peronist party (Partido Justicialista) was again declared legal. Shortly thereafter Perón declared to be in favor of a broad party coalition to ensure victory in the coming elections. Supported by Perón, Cámpora was elected party leader (June).~~~ However, political violence further escalated. The guerilla band ERP (Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, Revolutionary People's Army) abducted and killed Oberdan Sallustro, the director of Fiat. In Rosario a high-ranking officer was murdered and a bomb went off in the Buenos Aires Sheraton Hotel. In August, together with two comrades, ERP leader Roberto Santucho escaped from Trelew prison (Patagonia), hijacked an airliner and fled to Chile. The armed forces took revenge by summarily shooting 16 imprisoned terrorists.~~~ On November 17 Perón visited Argentina. However, he was so well cordoned off by security measures that any contact with the public was impossible. After Perón had declared he would not run for president in the coming elections, Héctor Cámpora became the presidential candidate for "Frejuli" the Frente Justicialista de Liberación (Justitialist Liberation Front), as the Peronist movement was now known.

1973

Frejuli won the March 11 presidential elections with 49% of the vote. On May 25, the main national holiday, Héctor Cámpora was sworn in as president. On June 14 the president went to Spain just to pick up Perón. However, Perón's return (June 20) ended in a drama. Among the millions of people lining the road to the capital and assembled at Ezeiza Airport, gunfights broke out. Police anti-terrorist units, secret service personnel and urban guerillas, all of them heavily armed, tried to eliminate one another, killing and wounding countless people. On June 13 Perón forced Cámpora to step down. Raúl Alberto Lastiri (1915-1978), the President of the House of Representatives, took over the presidency and called for new elections. Lastiri was the son-in-law of José López Rega, one of Perón's closest aides.~~~ At the September 23 elections, Perón carried almost 62% of the vote. His running mate was his own wife, Isabel Martínez de Perón. On October 12 Perón was sworn in as president for the third time.~~~ The political violence did not come to an end. Several high-ranking officers were murdered and on September 25 CGT secretary José Rucci was assassinated by the Montoneros. The murder of Rucci indicated there was fierce struggle inside the Peronist trade union between the left and the right.

1974

At a massive First of May rally on Plaza de Mayo Perón called the Montoneros (the semi-underground Peronist guerilla organization) immature idiots (imberbes and estúpidos). Thus he openly admitted the smoldering conflict with the Peronist youth organizations that was being fought secretly. The Montoneros wanted Perón to unleash a socialist revolution to radically change society. Perón, however, wanted none of it, increasingly proving to be a pillar of the establishment. As the president was addressing the crowd, the Montoneros demonstratively left the square and stepped up their attacks against the right wing of the party, the army, the police and competing guerilla groups. The other guerilla bands also went on a shooting and murdering rampage. So did the secret army and police commando squads. The victims were usually highly placed and influential. In May the priest Carlos Mujica was murdered, in July former interior minister Arturo Mor Roig, in September Chilean General Carlos Prats González (1915-1974), who had found political asylum in Argentina. On November 1 the Montoneros murdered Federal Police chief Alberto Villar.~~~ Perón died on July 1 and was succeeded by the Vice President, his third wife Isabel, known sarcastically as "la señora."

1975

Although Argentina had long ceased to be a normal, peaceful society, now the country seemed headed toward complete lawlessness and anarchy. Leftist guerilla bands and secret counter guerilla groups were engaged in a real civil war. The administration used the half-clandestine AAA ("Triple-A", for Alianza Anticomunista Argentina), which recruited its members from among policemen and soldiers. At night they would drive around in Ford Falcons with government license plates, abducting people and committing attacks. At the end of May the army defeated a guerilla band in the sugar cane growing Province of Tucumán. In June Jorge Born, heir to the nation's biggest firm, was freed after paying a $60 million ransom, the highest ever paid. Born had been taken hostage by a Montonero group led by Mario Firmenich. Over the next years, the money was used to finance most Montonero operations.~~~ The new minister of economic affairs, Celestino Rodrigo, devalued the peso and increased the prices for basic commodities and services. This tough measure was soon known as the "rodrigazo", Rodrigo's blow. The annual inflation turned out to be 335%.~~~ On July 20 José López Rega left the country. Having started out as a police corporal and Perón's personal driver, he had risen to be Perón's private secretary, minister of welfare and chief adviser to President Isabel Perón. Nicknamed "Lopecito" (Little Lopez) or "el brujo" (the wizard), López Rega had stolen millions of dollars of government money and was the leading figure behind the AAA actions.~~~ In December air force General Orlando Jesús Capellini led an anti-government rebellion. Some days later the ERP mounted a massive and bloody assault on the Monte Chingolo army barracks.

1976

On March 24, upon the urging of important sectors in society, the armed forces staged a coup d'état. President Isabel Perón was deposed and interned. Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla (*1925) became president. The other junta members were Admiral Emilio Massera (*1925) and air force General Orlando Agosti. Videla announced radical changes. All of society and the economy would be purged and reformed. This plan was baptized "Proceso de Reorganización Nacional", usually shortened to "El proceso". The new nine-man cabinet included 7 officers, the most military administration in the nation's history.~~~ The new minister of economic affairs, José Martínez de Hoz (*1925), wanted to reduce the bloated public sector, limit union power and fully exploit Argentina's comparative advantage as an agricultural producer. This called for a monetarist policy and a breakdown of protectionist tariffs. The overvalued peso introduced frenzied speculation. This was the period of "plata dulce", (sweet money).~~~ The anti-guerilla war (usually called "guerra sucia", dirty war) was carried on with force. On July 19 ERP leader Mario Roberto Santucho was killed in a shootout. The army (in Tucumán) had already largely wiped out the ERP. The only remaining guerilla organization were the Montoneros. How harsh the new regime's repression was, became clear in September. In the city of La Plata, a number of high school students were abducted and murdered. Their only crime was having demonstrated for lower bus fares.

1977

In April the editor of the respected newspaper La Opinión, Jacobo Timerman was arrested. After his release from prison, Timerman published a graphic description of the systematic mistreatment and torture of political prisoners. Timerman was arrested in connection with "el caso Graiver" (the Graiver case), because his former associate, David Graiver, was suspected of laundering money for the Montoneros. In 1975 Graiver had died in a plane crash.~~~ The war against the guerillas went on unabated. Although the guerillas still carried out more than 600 attacks, since 1975 they had been reduced to half their manpower. The first group of 14 mothers of disappeared children began a silent march on Plaza de Mayo. The government was unable to stop this action since all the women did was ask for their children. They never yelled, wrote, or said anything bad about the government. The action proved highly effective and caused increasing embarrassment to the regime.~~~ In May arbitration in the conflict with Chile awarded sovereignty rights over three small Beagle Channel Islands (Nueva, Lennox and Picton) to Chile.~~~ As the Videla regime was fighting Communism in Argentina, in August the treaty with the Soviet Union came into force. A leftover from the Perón administrations, the treaty comprised cooperation in trade, technology and science.

1978

The year's most important event was no doubt the soccer world championship. There were worldwide protests against it being held in Argentina and demands for a boycott for the junta's persistent gross human rights violations. On June 25 Argentina won the final against the Dutch team (3:1), playing without Johan Cruyff, the world's best player. Buenos Aires had been cleaned and beautified for the occasion. The regime as anxious to show its best side to the world.~~~ In December the Swedish-Argentinian girl Dagmar Hagelin was abducted, tortured and murdered by navy lieutenant Alfredo Astiz. Astiz led a squad notorious for excessive cruelty and mass murders of defenseless victims. Since Spanish, West German and French citizens were also being abducted and killed, foreign nations were drawn into Argentina's internal affairs.~~~ In January the government declared that Argentina refused to recognize the result of arbitration in the conflict with Chile. At the end of November King Juan Carlos I of Spain and Queen Sofia came for an official visit.

1979

In September a delegation of the Inter American Human Rights Commission visited Argentina. The delegates recommended measures to improve the situation and handed the government a list with the names of 6000 persons missing in the period from January 1975 to May 1979.~~~ Political violence still had not ended: attempts on the lives of leading personalities continued and so did government reprisals against what was left of the guerillas.~~~ In December Robert Cox, the editor of the respected The Buenos Aires Herald left the country after receiving continuous death threats for not abiding by censorship rules.

1980

1981

On February 3, just after the summer vacations, a devaluation of the peso caused a wild panic with hundreds of thousands trying to change their savings for dollars. On March 29 the ruling junta removed President Videla for failing to reform the country. Videla was replaced with Lieutenant General Roberto Eduardo Viola (1924-1994), who enjoyed respect and trust in Washington DC. However, Viola barely stayed in office for one year, failing like Videla to establish law and order and to bring about economic growth. Viola therefore had to make way for Lieutenant General Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri (*1926), the army commander (December 22).~~~ Italian authorities ordered the arrest of Licio Gelli (*1919), grand master of the Freemason lodge P-2, and a close friend of both fugitive José López Rega and junta member Admiral Emilio Massera. The P-2 lodge was involved in a number of financial and political scandals, such as the bankruptcy of the Banco Ambrosiano, a bank working for the Vatican.

1982

Anti-government resistance was growing. The illegal unions, including the CGT were becoming bolder by the day. On March 30 the police violently disrupted a big demonstration.~~~ Meanwhile the government had started a secret plan to recover the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the hopes that such an action would bring about urgently wanted popularity for the regime. Moreover it would be an effective way of muzzling both the unions and the opposition. On April 2 Argentine forces occupied the Islands. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who also faced troublesome unions at home, seized the opportunity to increase her power and popularity. Supported by the U.S., and enthusiastic public opinion and docile media, Thatcher presented herself as a revived Churchill fighting dictatorship and repression in the name of civilization and democracy. The British Task force sent to the South Atlantic defeated the incompetently led Argentinian troops. The war cost the lives of more than 1000 Argentinian and some 250 British soldiers. On June 2 the islands were back in British hands. After the loss of the cruiser Belgrano (sunk by a British torpedo) the Argentinian navy dared not sail. The army also failed and only the air force gave a good account of itself by doing serious damage to the enemy. During the war Pope John Paul II made an official visit to Argentina.~~~ President Galtieri, who had become a nervous alcoholic, had to leave office. On July 1 he was succeeded by Major General Reynaldo Benito Antonio Bignone (*1928). Having lost all respect and prestige, the military had no choice but to prepare a return to democracy. The economy was in a desperate shape, the foreign debt stood at over $40 billion and annual inflation reached 210%.

1983

1984

In September novelist Ernesto Sábato, chairman of Conadep, the Commission for the Investigation of Disappeared Persons, presented its report to Alfonsín. The report included a list with the names of 9000 persons whose disappearance without a trace during the military regime had been confirmed.~~~ César Milstein (*1927) became the third Argentinian and third Latin American scientist to receive a Nobel Prize (for Physiology and Medicine).~~~ The economy was in bad shape. Inflation stood at 2% daily, with the annual figure hitting 687.8%.

1985

On June 14 minister of economic affairs Juan Vital Sourrouille announced a new monetary plan designed to put the Argentinian currency back in order. The value of the Austral, the new currency, was established at 1000 old Pesos Argentinos. However the economy could be brought back in shape that easily. Annual inflation still exceeded 300%.~~~ At the November 3 elections for the partial renewal of Congress the UCR won a simple majority of 43%.~~~ At any rate, democracy had firmly taken root. Just how firmly had already become apparent earlier when a series of bomb attacks by various groups failed to achieve any results. The declaration of the state of siege for two months (October-November) proved sufficient.~~~ On December 9 the verdict against the junta members who had been running the country from 1976 to 1983 was handed down. Lieutenant General Videla and Admiral Massera received life sentences. Three others were given shorter prison sentences. General Galtieri, Admiral Jorge Anaya and Air Force Generals Basilio Lami Dozo and Graffigna were acquitted of human rights violations.

1986

1987

Army dissatisfaction with government policy (such as continuing insecurity over prosecutions, budget cuts, loss of prestige after the return to democracy) caused some serious crises. On April 15 Major Ernesto P. Barreiro refused to appear in civil court and took refuge on a military base in Cordoba. The following day Lieutenant Colonel Aldo Rico led an anti-government rebellion at the infantry school at Campo de Mayo base near Buenos Aires, starting the "Holy Week crisis." President Alfonsín tactfully resolved the crisis.~~~ Congress voted the obediencia debida bill, which declared that soldiers who had violated human rights while carrying out orders were not liable for prosecution. The Peronist party secured a big victory at the September 6 provincial elections. Antonio Cafiero became governor of Buenos Aires province.

1988

1989

President Alfonsín proved unable to solve the economic problems. Under his leadership, the nation was sinking into ever deeper chaos. On February 7 devaluation caused a wild panic in the capital's financial district. On May 19, shortly after the presidential elections, stores and supermarkets in several cities were looted. However, Alfonsín had accomplished one thing: he had restored collective moral self respect by bringing to justice those mainly responsible for crimes committed during the "dirty war."~~~ At the 14 May presidential elections the Peronist party PJ received almost half the vote. A month later, Alfonsín announced he would step down before his term was over. Three weeks afterward, the winner of the elections, Carlos Saúl Menem (of Lebanese descent) was sworn in as president. The relatives of Menem's wife, Zulema Yoma (also of Arab descent) were deeply involved in international drug trafficking. The voters cared little about it as long as Menem lived up to their expectations by having a sound economic policy.~~~ Menem immediately initiated a dynamic economic program. In spite of his Peronist background, Menem had the opposite of a socialist policy. Instead, he turned out a neoliberal and had essentially the same policy as the Videla military junta. On September 1 the unprofitable ENTel state telephone company was privatized.~~~ On September 30 the bones of Brigadier Juan Manuel de Rosas (1793-1877, the nationalist governor of Buenos Aires (during the years 1829-1852) were returned to Argentina.

1990

1991

1992

On January 1 the new currency, the peso (indicated as $) was introduced. It had exactly the same value as a U.S. dollar (indicated in Argentina as U$S). The unions turned against government policy. With the CGT calling the first general strike against the Peronist Menem administration. However, the new economic policy proved effective, with the sale of state firms earning over $ 20 billion. This money was largely used to finance the costly monetary policy. Economic growth reached 6.5%, higher than any year in the recent past. Inflation had finally been overcome, attaining a mere 10.5%.~~~ On March 17 a powerful bomb, placed by Iranian terrorists, went off in the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires, killing 18 and wounding 250.~~~ Gabriela Sabatini (1970) won the U.S. open tennis championship for women.

1993

The periodical elections in October ended with a key victory for the Peronists. The policy of Menem and his economic advisers was thus largely supported and legitimized.

1994

1995

On March 15 President Menem's son, Carlos Facundo, died in a helicopter crash. Although it was probably an assassination, the president ordered not to hold an investigation, thus apparently confirming rumors about illegal activities in his own entourage.~~~ At the May 14 presidential elections, Menem was reelected with 50% of the vote. The UCR candidate, Horacio Massaccesi, received a mere 17%. The remaining candidate, former Peronist José Octavio Bordón, now leading the Frepaso coalition, polled 29%. Eduardo Bauzá became ministerial coordinator (September).~~~ The economy recovered from the "tequila crisis", as the crisis that had begun in Mexico in December of 1994 was generally known. Inflation reached only 3.5% but economic growth was negative (minus 4.5%). More serious was the problem of unemployment (20%), a relatively new phenomenon in a nation that had enjoyed almost full employment until about 1985.~~~ In July a trade conflict with Brazil was resolved. Argentina was complying that contrary to Mercosur regulations, Brazil was curtailing imports of Argentinian-made auto parts.

1996

1997

The opposition scored a big victory in the October 26 Congress elections for 127 out of 257 seats. The coalition Alianza para el Trabajo, la Justicia y la Educación (Alliance for Labor, Justice and Education) formed by the UCR and Frepaso, won 46% of the vote and increased its share of the seats to 110. The Peronists still had 118.~~~ In Madrid Corvette Captain Adolfo Scilingo was arrested on charges of killing people by throwing them out of helicopters above sea from a height of 6000 feet during the years 1976-1982. An estimated 4400 people were murdered in this way.~~~ The economy was in fine shape. Growth was 8.4% and inflation (0.4%) had almost disappeared.

1998

In March Congress voted the abolition of the punto final (1986) and obediencia debida (1987) laws for having been adopted under army pressure. Both laws gave immunity to anyone involved in any way whatsoever with the repression during the 1976-1983 junta. However, President Menem vetoed this Congress decision. Nevertheless Menem ordered Frigate Captain Alfredo Astiz to be dismissed from the navy without honors. In an interview Astiz had said he was proud of his active participation in the fight against the opposition during the military regime. Astiz showed no remorse whatever for the defenseless prisoners he had killed.~~~ At the end of April Dinko Sakic (*1922) was extradited to Croatia. During WW II Sakic had been commander of the Croatian concentration camp Jasenovac (where about one million people had been killed), and in 1945, together with thousands of other collaborators of the criminal Ustasha regime had fled to Argentina.

1999